3. Evaluation: Measurement of each alternative on these absolute requirements and other dimensions
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4. Knowledge of boundaries: The collection of information on boundaries/constraints/risks for each alternative such as political and cultural pressures, ethical and resource constraints, and additional problems the solution might create
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5. Comparison: The comparison of all alternatives on the dimensions in steps 2 and 3, e.g., using a weighting system or group techniques
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D. Effective implementation of the solution includes:
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1. Communicating and Selling: Effectively communicating and advocating the solution (e.g., to boards, clients); obtaining support for the solution at all levels
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2. Planning: Developing action plans for solution implementation with who, when, what, how specified
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3. Navigating: Being aware of resistance to organizational change and implementing strategies to decrease resistance
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4. Creating feedback mechanisms: planning ways to measure the effectiveness of the solution, including what to measure, how to measure it, when to measure it and who will be involved
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E. Evaluation and followup of the solution includes:
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1. Measuring: Measuring the dimensions as specified in the implementation plan
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2. Comparing: Comparing the performance standards with the measurements
3. Adjusting: Tweaking the solution according to feedback on problem areas
Shapes Model
Shapes is a model that was developed by L. Davie, T. Patterson, D. MacKeracher and R. Cawley as a tool for evaluating social action programs. This model identifies six problem-solving phases in community development.
Phase 1: Pre-Identification of Needs
The people act more or less randomly in response to what is happening in the community. Much interpersonal testing behavior occurs, and is often linked to overt problems and assumed to be caused by those problems. This assumption may turn out to be inaccurate on close inspection.
Phase 2: Need Identification
The people begin to consciously identify needs and problems from their own point of view. These perspectives are shared with other people. Effective sharing means that the people are able to reach some agreement on what the problems and/or needs actually are.
Phase 3: Objective Setting
Once the problems and/or needs have been identified, the potential arises for setting objectives. General objectives might determine directions to be taken in planning. Specific objectives might determine potential solutions or strategies to be used in pursuing these directions.
Phase 4: Planning
Specific plans for action are outlined. The action plan grows out of the directions, strategies, and potential solutions. Planning activities may include: obtaining the cooperation of new people, considering alternative plans, assessing resources required for the proposed action, gaining commitment from people controlling resources needed, organizing publicity and other campaigns to solicit support of the larger community, and receiving final commitment from the people involved to support the plan of action.
Phase 5: Action
The planned activity occurs. This phase may involve the delegation of authority to one or two people to manage the planned activity. These people are then responsible to monitor the day-to-day activities and problems, to make adjustments as necessary, and to report progress to the planning group.
Phase 6: Assessment and Monitoring of Effects
The assessment of effects of the planned activity are reported back to the people, both during and following the time of the planned activity.
Shapes Exercise
Number of people: 5 to 6 in a small group
Minimum time: 30 to 45 minutes
Materials: thirty 3 x 5 cards with situation statements on them, felt pens, newsprint
Setting: space for small group divisions
Purpose
This exercise helps members to develop a better awareness of the phases of problem solving in a community or within a group. It can help members outline phases of an action plan. The Shapes exercise stimulates communication among members and facilitates group bonding. It also gives members an opportunity to practice consensus decision-making.
Process
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Leader introduces the overall Shapes Model and explains the six phases. (Refer to Shapes Model)
- Members break into small groups (5 to 6 people).
- Each small group selects a chairperson.
- Each group then divides the newsprint into six sections and numbers each section to represent each of the six phases. Do not write in phases.
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Chairperson of each group takes the set of 3 x 5 cards with situation statements and guides group members to a consensus decision on where the statement belongs (Phase 1-6). He places it on the newsprint in the space with the appropriate number. The group goes through all 30 situation statements and places them on the agreed phase number. (See for Problem Solving Phases.)
- Following the completion of the statement sorting process (Q-Sort), the small group reports the results of their placements back to the large group.
To observe a small group process, an observer can be assigned to each group and then report to the large group on how the group functioned.
Discussion Questions
- Were you able to identify steps in problem solving?
- What is your impression of this community development model? Realistic?
- How did your group function? Cooperatively? Did only a few members talk?
- Did you go through these same steps in your small group? Were there any additional steps?
Problem Solving Steps
In preparing an action plan, a group should follow these steps:
STEP 1: Brainstorm to develop a list of all tasks which need to be completed if the goal or major tasks are to be achieved, no matter how obvious they might initially seem.
STEP 2: Prioritize the tasks from things that need to be completed first until the final tasks.
STEP 3: List the sequenced tasks and assigned responsibilities for completing each task, using the format below. This is a good time to identify any additional resources or support needed by the group or individuals to complete each assigned task.
STEP 4: Next, make reasonable estimates of how much time each task should take to complete and set a realistic target date for completion. As a rule of thumb, avoid an optimistic time limit which assumes that everything will go right. Rather, use a time estimate which falls between the most likely and the most pessimistic time estimate. Applying such a rule will save a lot of pressure and frustration later.
STEP 5: Finally, make sure that everyone is clear about what he or she is to do and who is responsible for coordinating the overall plan. (See for sample chart.)
The S-T-P Model of Problem Solving
The STP model is designed to provide a framework to apply the available resources to the solution of an existing problem. Usually, a problem exists before it is noticed or can be defined. However, individuals are aware of, or sense, conditions that evoke reactions such as dissatisfaction, frustration, tension, and other feelings. These are often called symptoms that give clues to the problem.
A problem exists when the situation is different than what is desired, even though the new condition desired may not be known. The STP model can help to more clearly identify the problem and assist in its solution.
STP Defined
A method of organizing information to define a problem, and to resolve or manage conflict and other situations which occur while creating a solution.
Information is organized into three interrelated dimensions:
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The Situation Dimension. Information about:
- the essential features of the current state or situation, and
- the forces or conditions that facilitate or impede moving to a solution.
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The Target Dimension. The desired target or state. This includes what is to be accomplished, and what needs to be avoided. Targets or goals are chosen because the individuals working on the problem value or desire them; they are not imposed. Requirements or conditions imposed that apply to the solution should be listed under the situation dimension. Targets are always more general than the proposed solution, since the same target may be achieved by different proposals.
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The Proposed Plan Dimension. Specific action proposals and steps aimed at changing the current situation and solving the problem are listed. Who will do what when becomes the focus of this part of the model.
See for some of the common conditions, situations, expressions and terms that fit into the three dimensions.
Putting Thought Into Action
Once the group has chosen the most desired solution, the next step is to list sequenced action steps that will lead to the accomplishment of the goal. This phase can be the most frustrating. The plan should specify who does what at what time. In developing a plan, the group might consider some of the following questions:
- Does the plan specify sequenced tasks which must be completed if the goal is to be reached?
- Does the action plan identify clearly who does what and when?
- Are all the needed resources for completing each of the tasks clearly identified?
- Does the action plan, when relevant, include times for getting the required authorization from those in authority and/or from constituents?
- Does the plan clearly assign responsibilities for carrying out each of the tasks, and then provide a means of coordinating the process?
- Does the plan define the roles and responsibilities of all persons involved?
- Does the plan provide for evaluation and revision if needed at some future date?