Compare the presentation of the colonial situation in 'A Passage to India' and 'Translations', paying particular attention to the use of form, structure and language, and evaluate the significance of the contexts to the meanings of the texts.

    'A Passage to India’ is a novel divided into three sections, named ‘Mosque’, ‘Caves’ and ‘Temple.’ Complementing these three sections are further trinities of groupings, with emphasis on the three seasons; three attempts to bridge cultures, and three religions. This can be developed even further when one considers the three ‘Anglo Indians’ (Mrs Moore, Fielding and Adela) and the three Moslem friends (Hamidullah, Aziz, and Mohammad Ali.) When the novel is more deeply analysed it becomes clear that Forster places emphasis on these groupings to emphasise separation and connection. The separation is illustrated by the geographical and emotional differences between the parts, while the connections are highlighted by the way in which separate parts are brought to life in each of the other sections. Notably, in ‘Mosque’ the opening section of the novel, Forster repeatedly refers to “The Marabar Caves”, despite the fact that they are not important until the following section. In ‘Aspects of a Novel’ Forster notes this technique as a method of repetition of various words and images, to create ‘rhythm’, where the novel is ‘stitched internally’. However, where the structure of 'A Passage to India’ stresses the importance of separations and connections on a more individual and spiritual level, the structure of ‘Translations’ is more concerned with language, or more generally the relationship between Britain and Ireland. Nevertheless, much like 'A Passage to India’, ‘Translations’ presents an audience with three acts, which correspond to three developing movements.  

Imagery in 'A Passage to India' plays an important role throughout Forster’s novel. The Caves imagery is undoubtedly the most significant, creating a pattern for the other key images and symbols to compliment. Notably a reader is told in the opening and final sentence of ‘Mosque’ about the ‘extraordinary Marabar Caves.’ Despite the suggested importance of ‘the overarching sky’ the nihilism of the caves dominates. It has been suggested by critics that ‘even physically the caves resemble the empty dome of the sky reaching out to infinity. Remarkably, the flame of a match reflected in the polished walls of the caves illuminates nothing but itself, emphasising the ‘nothingness’ of the caves. This concept can be elaborated upon further, by reinforcing the antiquity of the hills, which are impervious to human culture. Forster strengthens this point in chapter fourteen of 'A Passage to India' with the statement ‘before man with his itch for the seemly, had been born, the planet must have looked thus.’ It is clear through the reactions of Adela and Mrs Moore that the colonial conflicts, and striving for unity that take place in the caves expose the barren emotions of the individual, creating a spiritual challenge, which is deeper than any colonial conflict. From these character’s experiences a reader gains greater understanding of Forster’s own personal beliefs, which strongly focus on the spiritual awareness and importance of the individual.

Religion/ Hinduism Although spirituality in the novel does not lie in its concern with specific religions, it is nevertheless necessary to acknowledge the significance of the three different religions which are referred to. ‘Mosque’, ‘Caves’ and ‘Temple’ loosely focus on Mohammedanism, Christianity and Hinduism respectively, but it is only Hinduism that is presented fully, with the section ’Temple’ almost dedicated to this purpose. What’s more, “neither Aziz nor Mrs Moore seek comfort in the formalities of their religion”, Aziz believes that Islam is “an attitude to life both exquisite and durable” and Mrs Moors is troubled because she feels that “she lacks a sure response.” On the other hand, Godbole is not troubled by such problems, as he explains, “ I say to Him, Come, come, come, come, come, come. He does not come.” Godbole accepts the shortcoming of Hinduism, and yet is still content. While Forster is not promoting Hinduism as the religion to resolve the problems of unity, he is stressing its spiritual attributes, reinforcing his belief in the importance of the spiritual understanding of the individual. Importantly, it is Mrs Moore’s spirit which lives “to become a Hindu Goddess to sway Adela’s mind and to change the course of justice.”

Friel believes that the Irish are constantly overshadowed by “the sound of the English language…which forms and shapes us in a way that is neither healthy nor valuable for us…” Friel, through the characters in 'Translations', articulates his concern that the nature of language is an expression of racial and cultural awareness, which basic translation is unable to preserve. By taking the example of Maire and Yolland, an audience experiences the inadequacy of translation- “Does he know what I’m saying?” Friel’s translation of ‘Three Sisters’ into a ‘new kind of English’ illustrates his desire to make ‘an English’ identifiable to Ireland. This strongly supports Friel’s personal belief that basic translation destroys the cultural meaning of names and places, in a particular context, coming from a particular mouth.

    Friel and Forster both adopt different forms to compliment the purposes of their individual works. Friel chooses the style of a play partly because of its visual benefits. Notably, the tableau at the close of act one has a dramatic effect, and portrays the relevant characteristics of the attendees to the hedge school. The stage directions describe Jimmy Jack as ‘lost in text’ and ‘Hugh trying to negotiate the steps’; these descriptions expose their response to colonialism. In the context of ‘Translations’, the characters of Hugh and Jimmy Jack witnessed the transformation from rural Gaelic society to the progressively colonial nation. Unlike Jimmy Jack, who is ‘lost’ in his world of Greek Mythology, Hugh appreciates the need for translation, to ‘learn those new names…’ However, his character is perhaps the most tragic, for he understands the loss ‘translation’ will bring, which is why he urges they ‘learn to make them (names) their own.’  These words echo Friel’s own, where he confesses ‘we must make English identifiably our own language.’

    ‘Translations’ is primarily about language, which is why Friel’s decision to write a play is so fitting. The beauty of ‘'Translations' ’ as a stage performance lies with its ability to emphasize the differences between the English and Irish language, and the loss of meaning when one is translated into the other. Hugh, the most talented translator in the play is a prime example of this fact when he admits, “We tend to overlook your island”, and amusingly asks Yolland “Did (Wordsworth) speak of me?” As Eileen Underhill acknowledges, “His hubristic underestimation of the greatest imperialistic force since Roman times, proclaim him to be out of tune with reality.’ What’s more, through translation, the importance of England and indeed Wordsworth is lost. A more striking example of this fact is the awkward conversation between Maire, Yolland and Owen, where little communication is made: “What is he saying. “ / “What does he say?” Ironically however, without a translator Yolland and Maire make progress, and communicate through something deeper, and more powerful than language, for example “Maire holds out her hand.” to Yolland. Friel suggests through the “transcendent, translatory power of love”8, that communication can be accomplished. Thus, Friel suggests that identity is held deep in a persons roots, and in their intimate knowledge of names and places. Maire and Yolland’s rewarding conversation based on their knowledge of place names supports this suggestion: “Bun na hAbhann? Yolland is encouraged “Poll na gCaorach. Lis Maol.” Maire turns towards him. “Lis na nGall.” What’s more, Friel is pointing out that take-over and oppression of Ireland is what killed the roots of the Irish culture, and consequently provoked the troubles of the 1980s.  

     The opening movement can be referred to as the ‘gathering’ where the characters are introduced to the audience9. It is evident that the sequence in which Friel presents the characters to the audience on stage is significant. Primarily, an obvious observation to make would be the entrance of the Irish community to the stage, followed by the English. However, the entrance of the Irish community to the stage alone is equally important, appropriately starting with Manus, Sarah and Jimmy Jack. These characters are the least accepting of England’s colonialism, and refuse to acknowledge the inevitable changes (Manus for example refuses to speak English.). It is quite fitting therefore that Owen is the last Irish member to enter the stage; for he has not only embraced the unavoidable changes, but he has joined forces with the English to enforce them. Unlike his brother Hugh, and the other Irish members, he fails to appreciate that the roots of the Irish culture are masked in language. Friel also has additional reasoning for such a pattern of entrance. Hugh’s entrance following his attendance at “the baptism of Nellie Ruadh’s baby” for example enhances the importance of ‘naming’ in the play. I strongly agree with the critic Leon Litvack who stresses “It is not so much the naming and the changing of names, but what that signifies and what those names signify in a particular context10.” In the second and third acts there is celebration and breakdown together. Effectively, Friel contrasts the first two celebratory acts with the final act of breakdown, to represent the ‘scattering’ of the Irish people and the collapse of the Irish culture. Hugh’s return from the christening of Nellie Ruadh’s baby in Act one and his return from the baby’s wake in Act three symbolises simultaneously Britain’s colonialism of Ireland, and the death of the Irish language.

    Baile Beag can be perceived in ‘Translations’ as a microcosm of Ireland11. In a similar way, one could thus support the view that the desire of the English ‘to make a map’ is itself a microcosm England’s desire to colonise Ireland. Therefore, Friel uses this to represent how the roots of the Irish culture are destroyed, through the destruction of Ireland’s place names. Lancey’s blinkered statement that ‘a map is a representation on paper’ reinforces this viewpoint. However, I disagree with critics such as Andrews who over historicize the play, claiming that Friel attempted to portray the map as an “extreme act of colonialism”. In order to correct Friel’s so called ‘historical errors’ Andrews claims that the map was much more of a civil measure, rather than an oppressive military act.

    In support of Friel’s own words that ‘the play has to do with language and language only’ it is important to highlight the relationship between names and identity. Friel maintains that names, culture and relationships (“embodied in language”), establish identity. He supports this theory through the character of Sarah, a girl with speech difficulties, silenced by the colonisers “she knows she cannot. She closes her mouth. Her head goes down.” In contrast to this, in 'A Passage to India’ Forster suggests that identity is found on a more spiritual level, and is only masked by names, culture and relationships. Ironically, while Forster focuses on the complexity of three different religions, places and seasons to emphasise the importance of the individual, Friel adopts the small hedge school of Baile Beag, and the personal relationships within the school to stress the significance of language on a larger scale, and its importance when considering Ireland’s loss of identity through colonisation.

In 'A Passage to India’ Forster questions the importance of language, relationships and culture, illustrating the significance of the spiritual understanding of the individual. Forster achieves this primarily through the character of Mrs Moore, and the spirituality of Hinduism. However, the issue of colonialism is less important in 'A Passage to India', and plays a more prominent role in Friel’s ‘Translations’. Unlike Forster, through the colonialism of Baile Beag Friel demonstrates his belief that the core of a person’s individuality is held in language, and without it their culture, relationships and names are lost.