Do Renaissance texts deal primarily with Renaissance concerns, or with universal human emotions and themes? Illustrate your answer from at least TWO texts.
Do Renaissance texts deal primarily with Renaissance concerns, or with universal human emotions and themes? Illustrate your answer from at least TWO texts.
Literary works in sixteenth-century England were rarely if ever created in isolation from affairs in the cultural and social world. Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene (published in 1590) and Christopher Marlowe's Dr Faustus (1601) were written during a period widely accepted as the Renaissance, which is said to have reached England in the early sixteenth-century. Literally, the term means 'rebirth' and it signified a resurgence in the arts and sciences. New discoveries were being made in all fields, as people began to question what they were told by the church and the state. One of the most important changes that took place during this time was the creation of the Church of England in defiance of the Pope and Roman Catholicism. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, her right to the throne was still not accepted by the church in Rome or even by a number of her own subjects. Spenser and Marlowe were undoubtedly aware of the time they lived in, as many of their works show. In The Faerie Queene Spenser, who was called 'Elizabeth's arse-licking poet' by Karl Marx, presents an eloquent and captivating representation of the Roman Catholic as the evil force pitted against England and the rightful queen. However, the story of the Red Crosse Knight could be read simply as a tale of honour, love and a young man's battle with his inner demons. In a similar sense, Marlowe's daring tale of black magic and evil was written at a time when these topics were a taboo, yet Dr Faustus also deals with universal human concerns.
Spenser's The Faerie Queene was originally meant to consist of twelve books, but Spenser only wrote and published six before he died. The first book concentrates on the adventures of a staunchly Protestant 'Knight of Holiness' who goes on a quest to kill the dragon that has imprisoned his loved-ones parents. In the Norton Anthology, Spenser's tale is described as:
a chivalric romance, full of jousting knights and damsels in
distress, dragons, witches, enchanted trees and wicked magicians.
However, in a letter to Sir Walter Raleigh in 1590, Spenser describes the knight's story as 'dark conceit'. He points out the most obvious allegorical devices that appear in the poem. The Red Crosse Knight represents King Arthur and England; Gloriana Elizabeth I. Already it is obvious that Spenser took seriously his duty as an Englishman to honour Queen Elizabeth, and his duty as a Protestant to champion the Church of England.
The Knight wears a 'bloudie Crosse' (1.10) of England on both his tunic and shield. Any contemporary audience would have recognised this as the symbol of the Templars, a religious and military order founded in 1119 for the protection of Christianity against the infidels. Already the Red Crosse Knight is not only going on a quest to slay a dragon, but also on a crusade to reclaim the land from those of false faith, as the Templars did. The knight's armour is marked with 'deepe wounds', which is interesting as the knight is described as being young and inexperienced. I think that this represents the continuing battle that Protestants must fight against the Catholics.
In order for the knight's quest to be completed, he must face the dragon, Errour, a 'monster vile, whom God and man does hate' (1.115). If we take the dragon to represent the Roman Catholic Church, Spenser's views are clear. The knight first sees the monster when his 'glistring armour (symbolic of Christianity's struggle) made / a little glomming light' allowing him to see the 'ugly monster plaine' (1.121). And so it is England's religion that sheds light on the evils of the Roman Catholic Church. We also learn that the dragon is 'Halfe like a serpent' and ...
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In order for the knight's quest to be completed, he must face the dragon, Errour, a 'monster vile, whom God and man does hate' (1.115). If we take the dragon to represent the Roman Catholic Church, Spenser's views are clear. The knight first sees the monster when his 'glistring armour (symbolic of Christianity's struggle) made / a little glomming light' allowing him to see the 'ugly monster plaine' (1.121). And so it is England's religion that sheds light on the evils of the Roman Catholic Church. We also learn that the dragon is 'Halfe like a serpent' and 'halfe did woman's shape retaine' (1.124). The image of the snake would have been instantly recognisable to an Elizabethan audience as a reference to the story of Adam, but the fact that Errour also has the shape of a woman is more confusing. Perhaps Spenser was again referring to the Garden of Eden where a woman, Eve, was the cause of man's downfall. Protestants at the time widely used the term 'Whore of Babylon' to represent the Papacy, so alternatively, Spenser may have been referring to this popular phrase.
When light is shed on Errour's den, 'A thousand yong ones' (1.131) flee into their mother's mouth, from fear of the light. The dragon's children may represent those in England who still followed Roman Catholicism. Although the practice of any religion other than Protestantism was made illegal, many Catholics still practiced secretly in England. Errour rises to attack the knight, but 'seeing one in mayle / Armed to point, sought backe to turne againe/ For light she hated' (1.140). According to this tale, the Roman Catholic Church feared England, clad in God's armour, which shed light on it's true, ugly nature. The Knight strikes the beast 'from her head unto her shoulder'. This could be seen as the initial blow that Henry VIII struck to the Roman Catholic Church when he declared himself head of the Church of England. The beast though, is merely dazed, and so the battle must continue.
It is the knight's loved-one, Una that spurs the knight into further action. 'Add faith unto thy force and be not faint: / Strangle her, else she will strangle thee' (1.165). Una may well represent Queen Elizabeth. Earlier in the first Canto, she is introduced as riding 'Upon a lowly Asse' (1.129) and with her is a 'milky white lambe' (1.36). This shows her to be a representation of the Virgin Mary, and Elizabeth was well known as the 'Virgin Queen'. In this way Spenser not only reinforces this image, but also unites England's monarch with God. The knight (or England) is strengthened by Una's (or Elizabeth's) support, and the battle against Rome continues. The Red Crosse Knight grips Errour by the throat and we see that 'Her vomit full of bookes and papers was' (1.177). This probably refers to the Catholic pamphlets that were in circulation at the time, or the papal bull instructing Catholics to murder Queen Elizabeth. Spenser seems to suggest that this was Roman Catholicism's last desperate attempt to attack England. Eventually, the knight strikes off the beasts 'hateful head'.
Spenser definitely had the concerns of England on his mind when he wrote the first book of The Faerie Queene. His support for Queen Elizabeth against her enemies is unashamed and obvious. Book five dramatises his arguments in A View of The Present State of Ireland' in which he recommends sterner treatment of the rebellious Irish, and James VI of Scotland actually complained that his mother Mary Queen of Scots (Elizabeth's Catholic predecessor) is slandered as Duessa in The Faerie Queene. Soon after the first three books were published, Spenser was awarded a handsome pension of fifty pounds a year, and given lands in Ireland. It appears that the Queen appreciated his support in this popular poem. What else can be said about The Faerie Queene? I don't think it is just a collection of Protestant propaganda. On a lower level, it is an adventurous tale of love and honour, but I believe that this allegory has another, deeper meaning, concerning what makes a true man.
In Spenser's Image of Nature, Cheney writes:
[Spenser] provides graphic evidence that man must never
permit his civilisation to render him incapable of defending
himself against the enemies of that civilisation
We must remember that although the knight may represent the Protestant's struggle, he is also an individual. After the Red-Crosse Knight has defeated the evil Errour, he goes on to battle other enemies, including the pagan warrior Sans Loy, or 'without law', Sans joy (without joy) and Orgoglio, representing pride. It's as if the knight must do battle with his own negative emotions to win his battle. In his letter to Raleigh, Spenser states that the main purpose of his poem is: 'To fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline'. In other words, over the twelve stories that were to make up The Faerie Queene Spenser hoped to present the individual moral qualities that make up the perfect human being. In this way at least, Spenser's poem doesn't only concern the situation in England during the Renaissance period, but also on the universal theme of nobility, or what it is to be a man. In Shakespeare's Hamlet, the Prince's main concern is how he can solve his problems nobly.
Whether tis 'nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
This idea of nobility appears in many stories, from different times and cultures.
Christopher Marlowe wrote his version of Dr Faustus in the 1580's. The tale of Dr John Faustus is set in Wittenburg, Germany. The doctor, believing he has reached the limits of human knowledge decides to sell his soul to the Devil. In exchange he will gain magical powers and unlimited knowledge of the universe for twenty-four years. As the play progresses the years pass, as Faustus is supplied with many experiences, including a parade of the Seven Deadly Sins, and the ability to be invisible. At the end of the tale, Faustus is asked by an old man to repent his sins and be forgiven by God, but the doctor short-sightedly refuses and is dragged screaming into hell. It is significant that Dr Faustus was written at a time when sorcery and black magic were not only a theatrical fantasy but also a widely shared fear. The state could act on such accusations, and it often did, with as much ferocity as under the pervious rule of Mary. Marlowe was himself the object of suspicion and hostility. Mario Praz calls him a libertin, meaning both 'free thinker' and 'man of loose morals, whilst Christopher Baines reported a few days after Marlowe's death that the poet had said:
...That the first beginning of Religion was only to keep men in awe....
...That Christ was a bastard and his mother dishonest....
Little is known of Marlowe's true thoughts about religion. Apart from an atheist, he was also called a violent homosexual who had monstrous opinions. It is very likely that Marlowe's character has been tarnished by his enemies, but the fact that he wrote a play about a man denying God in search of a greater understanding of the universe, at a time when many of the most fundamental assumptions about spiritual life were being called into question is interesting. Marlowe was certainly a true 'Renaissance man', and I believe this is shown in Dr Faustus.
When the play was written, Queen Elizabeth had banned the practice of Catholicism in England when she succeeded Mary Queen of Scots in 1558. Marlowe's choice to place the doctor in Wittenburg is interesting as this was the home of Martin Luther, whose teachings were the basis of Protestant Anglicanism. In scene VII, Faustus chooses to make a fool of the Pope when Mephistopillis makes him invisible.
FAUSTUS. Fall to, and the devil choke you if you spare!
POPE. How now! Who's that which spake? - Friars, look about.
Any Elizabethan audience, aware of the situation between England and Rome, would have been ready to laugh at this mockery of the Pope. It is also significant that Faustus uses Latin to perform his magic.
Then fear not, Faustus, but be resolute,
And try the uttermost magic can perform.
Sint mihi Dei Acherontis propitii!
The audience may have related this use of Latin to Catholic mass, and therefore associate it with evil and the Black arts. In this way, Dr Faustus could be seen as supporting the Anglican attack on Roman Catholicism.
Although Marlowe may have supported England's fight against Rome in the play, he also presents the new Renaissance ideology in Dr Faustus. Harry Levin writes in Christopher Marlowe: The Overreacher, that the first soliloquy is 'no mere reckoning of accounts but an inventory of the Renaissance mind'. Roma Gill states that Faustus is 'the epitome of Renaissance aspiration'. I would agree that Faustus is a true Renaissance man - a great scholar; a man of learning whose pursuit of knowledge was common in Marlowe's time. He quotes Aristotle, another great thinker, and speaks Latin, all evidence of his learning. Because of this, he is forced to question everything about the world around him, and only accepts what he himself can prove. And yet he is 'still but Faustus, a man' (1.23), so he must give up his very humanity in pursuit of his dreams. Warren Smith writes:
From a proud philosopher, monster of all human knowledge,
To a trickster, to a slave of phantoms, to a cowering wretch:
That is a brief sketch of the progress of Dr Faustus.
If Faustus remained unpunished for selling his soul, perhaps it could be said that Marlowe truly believed in 'free-thought' and all the other accusations that were made against him. The doctor, however, is ultimately dragged into hell, so perhaps Marlowe hoped to warn scholars that the pursuit of knowledge could lead to damnation.
In a more simplistic way, the play deals with a story that has nothing to do with the Renaissance. In the doctor's soliloquy in scene one, he says:
Why the belike we must sin
And so consequently die
Here, Faustus refers to the bible story of Adam and Eve, and the original sin of man, where they were cast out of the Garden of Eden and forced to live and die. This story would have been well known in Marlowe's time as one of the Medieval Mystery Plays, in which bible stories are presented in a way that an Elizabethan audience could relate to and understand. They taught basic moral values that are still held in high regard today, like honesty and courage. The play is in essence, about a human being whose ambition and vision lead him to challenge the basic fundamental laws of the world around him. This type of story is common throughout literary history. If then, we ignore the historical context that Dr Faustus was written in, we can say it is a play dealing with human concerns, specifically with the common theme of man wanting more than is realistically possible.
In Conclusion, it is obvious that both Christopher Marlowe and Edmund Spenser were aware of the situation and feeling in England at the time they wrote their works. At a time when literature was heavily censored by the state, it is unsurprising that they show, if only slightly, support for the current regime and the ideology it stood for. However, like any other story, the tales of Dr Faustus and the Red Crosse Knight must contain some sort of human theme, or they simply wouldn't be stories at all. Marlowe was eventually charged with heresy and blasphemy for his views, but was killed under dubious circumstances before the warrant could be executed. I think that most Renaissance texts deal with Renaissance concerns, but only because most authors at the time would find it impossible to ignore the world around them. Like stories from any age, Renaissance texts deal primarily with human emotions and themes.
Bibliography
The Norton Anthology VII, Volume 1
D. Cheney, Spenser's Image of Nature (1966)
H. Levin, Christopher Marlowe: The Overreader (1954)
R. Gill, Dr Faustus (1968)
H. Gardener, The Tragedy of Damnation (1961)