Michelangelo's Tombs
The career of Michelangelo spanned almost 75 years. Within which his artistic genius touched all aspects of the arts ranging from architecture to poetry. Yet despite his renowned fame, Michelangelo was not a free spirit, privileged to work when and where he wanted. Often because of high demand, his work was made to suffer under the ever-shifting political powers who commissioned his genius.
The Tomb of Pope Julius II occupied more than half of Michelangelo's working career, it is this great time span which allows for a closer look into the pressures and influences which precipitated the numerous transformations of the tomb.
Development of the tomb occurred over 40 years in various stages from the original contract of 1505 to the finished product of 1545. Around the pontification of Pope Julius II, Rome was the artistic center of Italy, witnessing the rebirth of the "classical style". The Pope was a great patron of the arts and in 1505 he commissioned Michelangelo to Rome to design his tomb1. As there are no existing drawings for the first tomb design, information is primarily based on reconstructions from the secondary sources of Vasari and Michelangelo's biographer Condivi.
The first tomb design referred to as a "symphony of marble"2, combined architectural and sculptural elements which differ from those of previous centuries. Unlike previous mausoleums, the 1505 project was designed as a freestanding structure, which represented a first in regards to papal tombs.3
Essential to the importance of the Pope's tomb was its surroundings. It was important the architecture surrounding the mausoleum enhanced the statement commemorating the greatness of Julius II. Michelangelo's intention to place the mausoleum within a centrally planned funerary chapel located upon St. Peters cemetery, derived from studies of ancient tradition Martyrium and the Greek Hellenistic basilica4. Michelangelo intended to include the dome into the illusionary meaning of the tomb as representing the heavenly dwelling of the deceased Pope.5 It was this intention which led to the construction of the new St. Peters away from the traditional Latin cross design towards the adoption of a Greek cross basilica. This is important because it represents the first development of a church due to funerary tradition, not aesthetic considerations of the time.
The tomb was divided into a 2-story structure. The lower was adorned with 8 Virtues each positioned within a niche, flanked by a number of struggling Captives totaling 166. According to Condivi, the struggling Captives represented the perishing of the arts upon the death of their patron Julius II7. Vasari on the other hand concluded the Slaves represented the captured provinces, exalting the conquests of the "Warrior Pope"8. The lower scene was quite disorganized, unlike the ordered contemplative world of the upper platform which contained images of grace and redemption; representing the higher, heavenly world.
The construction ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
The tomb was divided into a 2-story structure. The lower was adorned with 8 Virtues each positioned within a niche, flanked by a number of struggling Captives totaling 166. According to Condivi, the struggling Captives represented the perishing of the arts upon the death of their patron Julius II7. Vasari on the other hand concluded the Slaves represented the captured provinces, exalting the conquests of the "Warrior Pope"8. The lower scene was quite disorganized, unlike the ordered contemplative world of the upper platform which contained images of grace and redemption; representing the higher, heavenly world.
The construction of new St.Peters, intended to house the mausoleum, forced a delay in the tombs undergoing. Unfortunately, it was not until the death of the Pope was tomb construction resumed. The Pope's heirs decided not to wait for the completion of the Catherdral and requested Michelangelo to proceed with a second tomb design.9 The fundamental change to the 1513 design is the transformation from a freestanding mausoleum to a wall-tomb.
The political situation at this time was one of relative calmness for Julius II's family, the Roveres. The new Medici Pope, Leo X was on good terms with the head of the house of Della Rovere, Duke Francisco Maria of Urbino. This enabled the Duke to push Michelangelo for the enlargement of the tomb seeing it not merely as the Pope's grave, but more like a family monument representing the power of the Rovere family10.
However, despite the endorsement of Leo X, reductions in the tomb size occurred. Perhaps Michelangelo's participation in projects for Leo X forced his focus away from the tomb, thus emerged a more rapidly executed plan. However this causes a discrepancy, because despite the reduction in monumental size, the tomb increased in tectonic scale, which would require more time be spent on the tomb than previously. If Michelangelo was searching out a quicker solution to this complication, surely he would not have designed a plan which would require even more of his attention.
Visually, the content of the lower story remained the same as the 1505 design except because of its structural change the number of Virtues decreased to 6 and the Captives to 12. Functionally, it no longer housed the tomb, instead it was converted into an ornate plinth on which the sarcophagus rested atop. By placing the tomb on the base of the upper level Michelangelo strengthens the Popes symbolic relationship to the world of grace and redemption. Behind the sarcophagus was a 25-foot cappelletta (an elongated naïve), which housed an image of the Virgin and Child. Regarding the upper tier, the number of figures increased from 4 to 6 and with the addition of the cappelletta and it's 5 new figures, the total number increased to 11.
With the 1513 design emerges the statue of Moses, who is a reflection of Michelangelo's sculptural developments on muscular movements achieved while working on the Sistine Chapel Ceiling11. Initially Moses was intended for the upper story, and is therefore sculpted on a large scale with the intention of being viewed from a distance.12 However as time will tell, Moses eventually comes to occupy the central position of the lower story.
Unfortunately, the 1513 project came to an abrupt end in 1515 when political differences terminated the good relations between Leo X and the Duke of Urbino. The Duke's refusal to support the Pope in his campaign against the French in Lombardy resulted in his exile and drastically effected the development of "the monument of glory of the enemy family.13" Once again, Michelangelo is forced to alter the monument to appease rising exterior pressures.
Structurally speaking, the third tomb suffered reductions in scale, but for the most part the lower story remained the same. The main changes of the 1516 project occurred in the upper tier with the replacement of the cappelletta by a completely new structure. The new structure covers the breadth of the lower level and its reduced height to 14 feet makes for a closer relationship with the 10-foot high lower level. Visually, this harmonizes and simplifies the tomb.
In both stories the number of figures have been greatly reduced in number and simplified. The number of figures on the upper level has decreased to 4. The lower level figures are represented solely rather than in their previous group-like state.
Unfortunately this third attempt was made in vain, for in 1520 Michelangelo's attention was turned towards the Medici Chapel, San Lorenzo and with this commission, all tomb plans were put on hold.
In the years following the 1516 project until 1532, several key events happened which contributed to the delay and eventual changes in the tomb. With the death of Leo X, rose the power of the Rovere family. However this power is diminished upon the appointment of a second Medici Pope, Clement VII. As a result of these power struggles the tomb went through various minor changes. At this point Michelangelo became fed up with the commission, feeling "chained to the tomb."14 With this, Michelangelo requested his removal from the project, suggesting he leave the final execution to others. Julius II's heirs did not agree to this, but since they wanted the tomb completed they drew up a new contract. This contract stated Michelangelo was to complete the figures of Moses (who at this time was moved to its present central position on the lower level), the Virgin, two Captives, a Prophet and a Sibyl, his assistants could complete the rest15. At this time the decision was made to place the tomb in San Pietro in Vincoli, where it stands today.
With the death of Clement VII in 1534, so ended any attempts to complete project No. 4. His successor, Pope Paul III demanded Michelangelo finish work on the Sistine Chapel thus once again, his attention is turned away from the monument. Understandably, this upset the Rovere's whose demands only increased with the Pope's latest action16.
As a result Michelangelo became extremely fed up with the tomb and once again implored the new head of the Rovere family, Duke Guidobaldo, to free him entirely of the contractual obligations. The Duke obliged to some extent, requesting Michelangelo be responsible for the figures of Moses and the 2 Captives, Raffaelo da Montelupo would complete the rest. However with some pleading to Paul III, Michelangelo had his role reduced to supervisor, and was only responsible for the completion of Moses. This was confirmed in a new contract signed by the artist and the Rovere family in 154217.
Finally, in 1545 the tomb began nearing completion. The 2 Captives were done away with and replaced with the figures of Leah symbolizing love in action, and Rachel symbolizing faith18. As opposed to the earlier Virtues who filled the entire niche, Leah and Rachel sit neatly within their niche thus leaving the arches empty to enhance the impression of tranquility. Compared to the fierce, passion-filled Moses, Leah and Rachel are calm and serene. These opposites are representative of the Pope's personality as a transcendental religious figure and the man known as the "Warrior Pope"19. Raffaelo da Montelupo completed the Virgin, the Sibyl and the Profit, which were subsequently placed in the upper story. Thus the tomb no longer reflects the initial divisions of "upper" and "lower" realms. No longer does it represent the Pope's dominance over the earthly world, but is more suggestive of a house of contemplative peace, in the heavenly world of the divine.
The final monument primarily represents a work which is just as much a product of its patrons as it is its great master. It is a true reflection of the effects political power struggles can have when fought along artistic lines. What becomes evident is that despite strangling subjugation to varying individuals, Michelangelo, through his artistic genius, and with some "help", still produces a grand funerary monument worthy of a great Pope.
Herbert Von Einem, Michelangelo (London: W & J Mackay Ltd, 1973),75
2 Von Einem, 76
3 Charles de Tolnay, The Tomb of Julius II (NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), 20
4 De Tolnay, 20
5 Tolnay, 21
6 Frederick Hartt, History of Italian Renaissance Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1987), 491
7 Von Einem, 41
8 Von Einem, 42
9 David Summers, Michelangelo and the Language of Art ( NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), 406
0 De Tolnay, 32
1 Summers, 401
2 Einem, 81
3 De Tolnay, 45
4 De Tolnay, 59
5 De Tolnay, 61
6 Einem, 124
7 De Tolnay, 65
8 Einem, 173
9 Hartt,482