EOGRAPHY GCSE CASE STUDIES AND NOTESUse geographical terms in your answers wherever possible
EOGRAPHY GCSE CASE STUDIES AND NOTES
Use geographical terms in your answers wherever possible
Understand meaning of terms used in questions:-
explain = give reasons for
describe = say what it shows
distribution = how things are arranged, where they can be found
relief = shape of the land
layout = where things are
pattern/trend = things that are the same
site = actual position
situation = its surroundings
rural/urban = country/town
input/output
housing tenure/density = ownership/how many in a given area
ecosystem = area sharing common characteristics
Theme 1 - Physical systems & Environments
a Geomorphic Processes and Landforms
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition
rivers
hydraulic action
attrition
corrosion
corrasion/abrasion
suspension
solution
saltation
traction
95% of river's energy used in transportation
oxbow lakes
levees
delta
braiding
coasts
as above
weakness in rock enlarges = cave = arch = stack = stump
long shore drift (waves in on diagonal due to wind, out at right angles due to gravity)
suspension
solution
saltation
traction
bars
tombolos
spits
ice
plucking
abrasion
ribbon lake
carries
pushes
material at edge of glacier
kame
eskers
outwash plains
terminal moraines
drumlins
Water Cycle
precipitation - water falling as rain, hail, sleet, snow
condensation - water change vapour - liquid
evaporation - water change liquid - vapour
infiltration - water seeping into ground/soil
interception - trees and plants stop rain from reaching the ground
Rivers
A river is a channel of water flowing down hill under the influence of gravity. It starts in the mountains (source) and meanders towards the sea (mouth)
River Erosion
* Energy - the capacity of a river to erode and transport sediments of mud, sand and gravel
* Erosion - break down, transportation and deposition of rock
* Transport - carrying and moving sediments downstream
* Load - sediments and material transported by a river
* Excess energy - spare energy not needed to transport river's load
* Deposition - dropping any material the river can no longer transport
* Traction - rolling stones along river bed (needs most energy)
* Saltation - sand-sized particles bounce along river bed
* Suspension - silt and clay-sized particles carried within water flow
* Solution - some minerals dissolve in water (needs least energy)
* Velocity - the speed of the flowing water
* Wetted perimeter - the outside banks and bed of a river and any obstacles that come into contact with the water.
* meander - s-shape bends in river as it moves over flood plain. Water flows fastest on outside of bend, therefore more erosion here, eventually causing ledge to form and collapse. Deposition occurs on inside of bend, where water flow is slowest
* Delta - river deposition builds up area of silt/new land when it meets the sea
* Potholes - large, smooth, circular holes in river bed
* Oxbow lakes - horse shoe shaped lakes, formerly bends in the river which have been flooded
* Drainage basin - area from which the river collects its water
* Braiding - river divides into two or more channels
The main aim of a river is to flatten the surface of the land by
. corrosion - acids dissolve rocks
. attrition - rocks hit one another and break into smaller pieces
. hydraulic action - force of water breaks off part of the bank
. corrasion - small rocks 'sand-paper' or smooth larger ones
Floods caused by built up on river banks of silt or alluvium deposited by river. Over a period of time silt builds up and forms a levee.
Soil Erosion and Deserts
Problems caused by overgrazing, gulleying, overcultivation, deforestation, desertification
Overgrazing - too many animals = shortage of trees and grass
Deforestation - trees cut down = land useless and prone to landslides etc
Desertification - deserts spread. Causes:-
* population increase = need more food, crops
* overcultivation and overgrazing
* cutting down of rainforests, especially for fuel
poor irrigation
Solutions:- terracing, contour ploughing, afforestation, strip cultivation, shelter belts, vegetation
Case Study - Kenya
* Savanna grassland
* nomadic maasai tribe, now have to stay in one place
* overgrazing
* overcultivation
* deforestation
Solutions: walls following contours, plant trees
Weathering
Limestone = sedimentary rock, laid down in separated layers. Water enters through swallow holes on surface and travels along bedding planes and down joints. Chemical weathering causing stalactites and stalagmites to form.
Wave Erosion
. hydraulic pressure
. corrasion
. corrosion
. attrition
Sea attacks foot of cliff - wavecut platform. Cracks get wider and deeper until waves cut through, forming an arch. Blowhole forms. Further undercutting causes arch to collapse, leaving stack, then stump.
Spit - area of sand or shingle extending at a gentle angle out to sea or across a river. Often hook shaped
Bar - barrier of sand along a sheltered bay, often forming fresh water lagoon on landward side
Tombolo - deposition joins an island to the mainland
Longshore drift - zig-zag movement of material (sand, rocks, pebbles, boulders, seaweed) along the coast line.
Waves go up the beach at an angle because of the prevailing wind and return at right angles due to gravity
strength of waves affected by wind, distance wind travels (fetch) and how low wind blows.
2 kinds of waves - constructive (build up beach), destructive (remove material from beach)
Glaciation
Precipitation falling as snow or water turns into ice. Ice moves downhill under force of gravity. Glacier carries material (moraine) by freeze and thaw weathering on surface of glacier or underneath it. Moraine is deposited on thawing.
Erosion by glaciers:-
abrasion - material acts like sand paper wearing away floor of valley
plucking - ice freezes and sticks to rock
aretes - knife-edged ridge formed when two corries cut back to back
pyramidal peak - three or more corries cut towards each other
hanging valleys - smaller glacier meets larger one and is unable to erode any further
glacial deposition
moraine - all rock debris carried by ice
terminal moraine - large unsorted mound, deposited at snout of glacier
ground moraine - jumble mass of boulders, sand and clay, deposited under ice
drumlins - small hillocks of boulder clay, moulded by ice flowing over them
lateral moraine - rocks lying at each side of glacier. When ice melts they form terraces of unsorted deposits on valley sides
recessional moraine -
erratics - rocks and boulders picked up, transported and deposited by glaciers many kilometers away.
Theme 1 - Physical Systems & Environments
b Atmospheric Processes and Climate
Weather & Climate
* microclimate - climate in a small area
* weather - day to day conditions eg changes in temperature, rainfall, pressure, wind speed, wind direction, humidity
* climate - average weather for that region over a longer period of time
* climate of British Isles - moderate/temperate climate - affected by sea (prevailing SW wind blowing over the warm Gulf Stream or North Atlantic Drift))
* anti-cyclones (high pressure) = settled weather - clockwise wind direction
* depressions (low pressure) = unsettled weather - anticlockwise wind direction
Case Study - Savanna climate - Kenya
* 15 deg north + south of Equator
* grassland under threat from desertification
* due to natural factors - thunderstorms, drought, fires, large herds wild animals grazing and destroying land
* due to human activity - new houses, maize crops, Maasai collecting firewood, domestic animals (cows, goats) overgrazing
Climate - 900 mm rainfall per year (3 months without rain = Nov, Dec, Jan) max rain August 270 mm - convectional rainfall
temperature 26 deg to 34 deg centigrade
Vegetation - Baobab tree - 10 metre trunk, few small leaves, thick bark, long tap root - adapts to hot dry weather by storing water in rainy season
Global Warming
Ozone layer of gases controls earth's temperature, pollution changes this layer eg methane, CFC's, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide
3deg rise in temperature may cause:-
* climactic belts to change
* ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
Climate - 900 mm rainfall per year (3 months without rain = Nov, Dec, Jan) max rain August 270 mm - convectional rainfall
temperature 26 deg to 34 deg centigrade
Vegetation - Baobab tree - 10 metre trunk, few small leaves, thick bark, long tap root - adapts to hot dry weather by storing water in rainy season
Global Warming
Ozone layer of gases controls earth's temperature, pollution changes this layer eg methane, CFC's, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide
3deg rise in temperature may cause:-
* climactic belts to change
* ice caps to melt
* change in habitats for animals and people
* skin cancer
some countries at risk from flooding
Holland - dykes (polder land)
Bangladesh
East Anglia
London (Thames barrier)
Deforestation
consequences
* floods because nothing to stop heavy rain run off
* topsoil eroded and carried into rivers
* rivers silt up, burst banks
* crops flood = famine
* sanitation facilities destroyed = disease
* loss of wildlife habitat
* decrease in soil fertility
* decrease in hard wood
* imbalance in carbon dioxide/oxygen = global warming
* decrease in evapotranspiration = decrease in rainfall
Management of problem
* sustainable management - international cooperation
* forestry co-operatives - clear strips 20-50 metres wide - allow for natural regeneration
* use oxen instead of machinery
* only give logging grants to multi-national companies on condition that equal number of trees are replanted as felled
* reduce international trade in endangered hardwoods eg mahogany
* reduce mass burning of trees = reduce global warming and climatic change
Rainfall
(moisture in air heating, rising, cooling, condensing, falling as precipitation)
Relief - warm air forced to rise over mountains (most common in UK because it is an island, prevailing SW wind, mountains)
Convection - warm air currents with water droplets (evaporation), cooling, condensing (clouds), falling as rain - near Equator
Frontal - cool and warm air masses meet - warm air mass goes up, cools, condenses, precipitation
Theme 2 Natural Hazards & People
Case Study - Bangladesh Floods
* much of country lies on a huge flood plain and delta of 2 large rivers
* 70% of total land area is less than 1 metre above sea level
* rivers, lakes and swamps cover 10% of the area
* 1620 mm rain per year
* monsoon climate
Flooding is caused by:- tidal waves (tsunamis), snow melting and rushing down from the Himalayas, heavy rain & thunderstorms, rapid surface run-off, flash floods, silt in rivers, deforestation, global warming, no defences. Typhoons cause damage.
Solutions:- dykes, walls, dams & levees, afforestation, dams, river dredging, straighten course of rivers - but solutions are expensive and Bangladesh is a poor country
Natural Hazards
earth's crust cracked in 14 main parts - lots of smaller plates. Mantle weighing down on minerals in core.
plates moving against each other side to side, causing earthquakes.
plates moving against each other head on create fold mountains.
plates sliding one under another create volcanoes
Natural Hazards - Earthquakes
The Richter scale 0 - 12
0 = noticed by only very sensitive people
2 = total destruction - ground rises and falls
Earthquakes usually occur in long narrow belts, largest one being around the Pacific Ocean, 2nd runs through the middle of the Atlantic, 3rd stretches across the continents of Europe
Plate boundary = where two plates meet. Plate boundaries are where most of the world's earthquakes and volcanoes occur.
Focus = source of earthquake
Tremors = small earthquakes which might occur before a larger one
Aftershocks = smaller earthquakes occurring after a larger one
Earthquake detection:-
- sensitive instruments (seismograms) to measure earth movements
- observing unusual animal and fish behaviour
- mapping centres of previous earthquakes along a plate boundary
- plotting the regularity of earthquakes
Case Study - Tokyo, Japan -1 September 1923 11.58 am
* 8.2 on Richter scale
* 140,000 dead (100,000 in Tokyo, 40,000 in Yokohama)
* focus of earthquake 30 km beneath sea
* caused by Philippines plate dipping under the Eurasian plate, and at this point the Pacific plate dips under the Philippines plate
Case Study - Kobe, Japan - 18 January 1995
* 7.2 on Richter scale, with threat of after shocks
* 1,800 dead, 6,324 injured
* flimsy houses, death traps, many people left homeless
* water and gas mains broken = fire, motorways + railways destroyed
Natural Hazards - Volcanoes
Pacific "Ring of Fire" is the largest narrow belt around which volcanoes occur.
Lava - molten rock, may be lava flow
Crater - hole in volcano emitting lava, ash + rock
Case Study - Hurricane Gilbert 10 September 1988
* cluster of clouds organised in a spiral, set off by the rotational force of the spinning Earth
* warm seas in areas of low pressure heat air above and produce convection currents. air rises and cools. condensation, clouds form.
* Miami
* gusting winds (160 km per hour for 5 days, individual gusts of over 300 km per hour), flooding from high waves, excessive rain -210 mm in one day at Monterrey, Mexico
* category 5 hurricane
* 300 dead, thousands homeless, billions of pounds of damage, crops destroyed, roads ruined. mudslides (lahars), floods, power/water supplies hit
Theme 3 - Settlement
Settlements
dispersed, linear, nuclear
Models:-
Burgess (concentric circle)
focal point CBD, newer buildings towards city boundary
Hoyt (sector model)
CBD in centre, with industrial/residential zones in segments
Harris & Ullman (more than one CBD)
Shopping Hierarchies
increased mobility - cars to wider range of shops, offering more stock
accessibility - urban roads & motorways improved
bulk buying - cheaper, shop once/twice a month (paid monthly)
space - shopping centres need space, therefore often edge-of-city locations
population movement - population moving out of urban areas
Land use changes in a city because
. ageing of parts of the city
. decline of original industry, replaced by new industry
. changes in people's needs and expectations
. concern for the environment
Urban growth results from
* natural increase in population
* gradual growth as industry moves out and new houses built
* migration of people from the country
Urban sprawl = pressure on the countryside.
Advantages of living in city: social/cultural amenities, more and better paid jobs, more and better quality housing, better transports, better services (health care), reliable food supply.
Disadvantages of living in city: pollution, housing and urban decay, ethnic divisions, unemployment and crime, traffic congestion.
Urban & Rural Settlements
CBD (central business district) - high order centre, selling luxury & specialist goods
Secondary centres & suburban parades - middle order centre (usually several) selling convenience and specialist goods.
Corner shops - low order centre (many) selling convenience goods.
Catchment area = area around the store that it caters for, the areas from which people come from to shop at the store.
Case Study - Cairo, Egypt, North Africa
population 20 million, located on River Nile delta at Mediterranean
Push & Pull factors
Push from rural areas
* diseased water
* no jobs
* civil unrest
* overcrowding
* lack of food
* people who can move, do move, especially young men. move in with friends and relatives
* men possess farming skills. dexterous so can build own houses, usually live in poor settlements. Will never break into tertiary industry so will always be poorly paid. 35% unemployed
* new people moving in live in "City of the Dead" cemetery - no water, sewage, electricity, gas
problems
* transport - rush hour lasts nearly all day. Public transport developed - cheap + private hire minibus system
* water/rubbish disposal - sewage system inadequate, now being improved. New system (financed by British and Americans) links to treatment tanks in desert, providing water for irrigation. Refuse carts (Zepelins) - rubbish sorted. Families live on tips. Pottery kilns fuelled by burning rubbish
* new housing - expensive. Ramadan City 55 km from city centre - new town in desert. neighbourhoods with 150,000 people capacity - only 30,000 live there
Case Study - Moscow, Russia
Socialist city, communist state (secretive, no freedom of speech)
Housing
* state owned, long waiting list, shared accommodation
* Mikro regions - neighbourhoods with services - live and work in same area
Transport
* Buses infrequent
* Metro heavily subsidised, cheap fares. 1 million passengers per day. one every 90 seconds. Metro does not reach outer Mikro regions
Industry
* technology behind other countries
* few new cars - waiting list 10 years
* need to make own plans for job or could be sent anywhere
Quality of life
* shortage of basic goods. Queues for food + clothing
* books in short supply
in 30 own a car
Case Study - Planning the City Region - the Developed World
Randstad, Holland
* Rhine delta
* very low lying land reclaimed from sea = polder
* unique in way it is planned - rural in middle, urban on edge
* Government focusing development on ends of urban horseshoe - renewal and redevelopment
* 4 major cities - Amsterdam, the Hague, Rotterdam, Utrecht
* changes in development 1970's people moved from cities to green heart, 1990's people moved from green heart to cities
Case Study - The London Docklands
* 19th century London Docklands was busiest in the world - by 1960's/70's bigger ships couldn't use Thames
* docks surrounded by warehouses + high density poor quality housing
* by 1970 area was derelict - few jobs, few amenities, poor living conditions - 50% of docklands were derelict
virtually no open space
small corner shops
high density housing - small houses, lacking modern amenities
few leisure amenities
narrow congested roads
empty warehouses and factories
* 1981 London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) set up - enterprise zone
* 3 aims: to improve 1. housing 2. number of jobs 3. environment
After development
* shopping - large superstores near Canary Wharf, luxury complex at Tobacco Wharf - prices increased = unsuitable for locals
* Environment - 17 conservation areas, large national indoor sports complex
* industry - new offices and hi-tech firms attracted by low rates eg newspapers moved from Fleet Street. 10,000 new jobs created before 1992 recession - suitable for highly skilled newcomers, not locals
* housing - 20,000 new houses, warehouse conversions, lower rate housing built + modern amenities
* transport - city airport, London Docklands Light Railway, improved roads and rail links eg Jubilee Line
* local services neglected, eg hospitals, care of elderly
Scheme was successful economically and environmentally but unsuccessful socially because local people were forced out.
Case Study The Metro Centre, Gateshead, NE England
* 300 shops (lots of childrens shops)
* air conditioned
* wide variety of places to eat (over 40)
* 10 screen cinemas
* 150 room hotel
* indoor fun fair
* seats for relaxing
* free car parking 10,000 cars
* land was cheap to buy
* possibility to expand
* good far out-of-town location
* 1.3 million people live within 30 minutes' drive
* adjacent to main railway line, own station
* easy access from motorways
* in an enterprise zone.
Case Study - B.A.R.T. (Bay Area Rapid Transit - San Francisco USA)
* opened 1974
* Electric + pollution free
* fast conveyance of 350,000 people a day in early 1990's
* trains travel up to 120 km per hour. (travel time peak periods over bay between Oakland and San Francisco = 9 minutes (40 mins by road)
* trains run every 1.5 minutes peak times, and every 20 minutes at night
* modern carriages are noiseless, air conditioned and carpeted
* whole system fully automatic and computerised
* long platforms = rapid alighting and boarding by passengers
* lower fares than by bus to attract passengers
* cars left at suburban stations = less congestion in CBD
* BART has helped regenerate commercial life in Downtown San Francisco
Case Study - Cheshire Plain - Dairy Farm
Physical inputs - temperature (mild winters 6 deg, warm summers 16 deg), rain (1000 - 2000 mm), growing season, relief (flat), soils fertile
Human inputs - farm size, buildings, transport, vaccines, little labour
Processes - milking
Outputs - milk, meat
* after World War 2 farmers encouraged to grow more - paid subsidies
* = over production and surpluses (grain mountains/milk lakes)
* quotas introduced to reduce production. Gilbert Hitchen's herd reduced from 200 to 100 cattle (farmers can buy quotas from neighbouring farmers). If milk production quota exceeded, farmer is fined. Milk collected daily, purity checked, paid 18p-23p depending on quality = fixed income
* set-aside - Government pays farmer to leave one of his fields fallow with no crops grown on it. 15% of land removed from production
* to make money today - diversification = changing to tourist/leisure attraction eg lambing open days, paint balling, hot air ballooning, scrambling, golf etc. But this takes capital and expertise
Case Study - Farming in Denmark
Physical inputs
* climate - warm, sunny summers
* soils: west = sandy, light, dry. east = heavier clays
* drainage: west = dry. east = rivers
* terminal moraine
* peninsula 100 km wide
Developments within farming
. from cereal production to mixed farming (competition from USA)
. crop rotation. nitrogen removed by some crops (cabbages), replaced by others (beans, peas)
. increase in field size = loss of hedgerow habitat + soil erosion increased
. increased mechanisation = reduced employment
Farm organisation
* co-operatives: buying and selling is organised; bulk buying of seeds, fertilisers; ownership of bank and dairy by farmers themselves; high quality production maintained eg "Danish Bacon"
Since joining the EU
* better exchange of goods between UK and Denmark
* subsidies ensure fixed prices for farmers
* CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) encouraged barley production
Economic Activity - Growth - Change
Industry
PRIMARY - use of natural resources to produce product eg farming, fishing
SECONDARY - processing or manufacturing resources from primary industry
TERTIARY - providing a service eg healthcare, education
QUATERNARY - hi-tech industry
Employment structure - proportion of people working in primary, secondary and tertiary industry
Footloose industry - industry free to locate where it desires
Multiplier effect - a new factory has the effect of creating many other jobs in shops, construction, schools, services etc
Infrastructure - electricity, sewers, roads, communications, services, shops etc needed by industry
Case Study - Car Industry - Detroit USA
* Located here near Great Lakes, St Lawrence river, iron ore + coal reserves north of city
* Entrepreneur - Henry Ford, paid $5 per day (average was $9 per week) attracted workers from all over USA
* Ups and downs - oil prices led to decline 1970's-1980's
* Japanese competition
* decline in plants - workers laid off, CBD collapsed (doughnut effect with dead centre and thriving suburbs = urban sprawl), high unemployment
* wealth of city came from car manufacture
* Big 3 - Ford, Chrysler, General Motors, now co-operating with Government to produce World Car = lighter, uses less fuel = less pollution
* Recovery - 1994 No. 1 in world sales. Recovery brought about by:-
changes in manufacture - small companies manufacture components
hi-tech assembly line - highly qualified work force with high wages
Chrysler relocated in CBD
Industrial Change
Iron and Steel industries in decline
S=social (local males unemployed)
E=economic (shops and services decline)
E=environmental (slag heaps, old factories)
Case Study - Regions of the British Isles
Core region - the South East, eg the Solent area around Southampton
Periphery region - the North eg the area around Workington
Core region is an area of growth and so has a cycle of growth.
Periphery region is one of decline. Regions in decline need help, this comes from the Government
Case Study - Area of Decline - Workington, Cumbria, NW England
* iron, steel industries closed down - spiral of decline
S=socially - many males unemployed
E=economically - 90% people affected in the town (shops & services)
E=environmentally - derelict buildings
* solution - Government made area a Development Area and an Enterprise Zone to encourage new industry, especially footloose industry (hi-tech), with reduced rents as incentive
Case Study - Area of Growth - Southampton (Solent) S England
early ship building industry declined but now in spiral of growth because good communications and near to London
971-1981 6.6% rise in employment due to hi-tech industry - University of Southampton, M3/M27, local environment (New Forest, sea). Many science/business parks built. Local money spent in pubs, shops, hotels, etc
Case Study - Hi-Tech Industry in Cambridge, SE England
Attractions of SE
* close to London
* communications good M11, airport (Stansted)
* Cambridge Science Park
* university city with highly trained scientists
* pleasant environment
Advantages
* lots of jobs
* housing & business development, out of town shopping centres
Disadvantages
* housing too expensive for locals
* high density housing built before services provided = no community feel
* congestion on M25
Case Study - Vauxhall Car Industry, Luton
Why Luton?
* London lease ran out 1905
* Luton Council offered low rent and rates
* high unemployment so cheap labour costs
* good transport links London, Birmingham
Investment/technology + working practices
* £136 million modernisation to give advanced body shop
* factory layout changed - small teams replaced conveyor belt = job satisfaction + improved productivity + bonuses
* 1988 4,000 workers made 100,000 cars per year
* 1995 3,700 workers made 200,000 cars per year
* 40% cars produced exported to 30 countries (92,500 cars in 1994)
* "just in time" supply of components from local/regional suppliers + GM European plants
* robots, flexible automation
Case Study - Developed Region: Lille, France
* was important for industry, went into decline because coal fields disappearing and competition from abroad
* radical change in last 15 years. Declining industrial areas qualify for EU funds £28.7 million investment for Lille (EU £5.74 million)
* new investment - buildings cleaned up, colleges replaced, new factories, offices, shopping centre
* communications improved - railway station TGV to Paris and W France. Roads - heart of motorway network in France and EU
* unemployment high for African immigres, especially after manufacturing industries declined and service industries expanded
Theme 5 People's Use of the Earth
Natural Resources
Renewable (infinite)
HEP wind solar geo-thermal biomass
wave/tidal eg St Malo, France - barrage/dam for energy from incoming and outgoing tide
Non-Renewable (finite) - fossil fuels
oil coal natural gas nuclear
Production of electricity - impact on environment
thermal power stations cause most damage to environment - air, water, land pollution
hydro electric power station cause no damage to air or water, only to land
Case Study - Energy - USA
* World's largest consumer of energy - industry, power, domestic
* has large and varied energy supplies, providing 90% of energy requirements eg coal, oil, natural gas
* problem of pollution. burning fossil fuels creates carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide causing acid rain, global warming, smog (SMoke and fOG) eg Los Angeles - cool air from ocean lifts up warm air. cool air trapped by Rockies, so pollution cannot rise into atmosphere
* has the money and technology to develop energy resources
Case Study - Oil, Shetland Islands - 5 January 1993
* oil tanker disaster - Braer en route to Canada
* gale force 10 southerly winds, gusting to force 12= 85 mph - waves 8 m high up to 30 m
* tanker followed dangerous route, engine failure south of Shetlands
* ran aground - 85,000 tonnes crude oil leaked from tanker
* impact on environment - land + water supply + wildlife + people
* detergent to disperse oil damaged marine ecosystem - waves would have dispersed oil naturally without harm to environment
Case Study - HEP, Volta dam, Akosombo, Ghana - Impact on the Environment
* 3000 square miles in area, 300 miles long, cost £86 billion
* USA financed scheme £56 million VALCO aluminium smelter (bauxite imported, electricity in Ghana, ingots of aluminium exported)
Advantages:
* generates 90% Ghana's electricity + electricity exported to Togo & Benin
* Kpandu market town - miniature inland port, variety new jobs, boatyard
* jobs for 2500 Ghanaians- benefits transport, health, housing, education
* fish improved local diet
Disadvantages
* north/south road cut by lake = traffic jams (1 hour ferry crossing)
* 80,000 people rehoused
Theme 6 - Population
Distribution - why do people live in some places more than others?
Growth
Influences on growth - natural increase + migration
Demographic Transition Model
Stage 1: slow pop increase, high fluctuating birth and death rates
Stage 2: early expanding, high birth rates, declining death rates
Stage 3: late expanding, declining birth rates, low death rates
Stage 4: steady population, low fluctuating birth and death rates
Dense population
* money - jobs/technology
* government action
* climate
* quality of life
* migration (war/religion)
* relief of land
* vegetation
High population density = Japan
Low population density = Australia
Age structure shown by population pyramids
Case Study - Brazil - E.D.C. (Economically Developing Country)
South East region of Brazil is more developed than the North East region because it has a lot of resources eg iron ore, manganese, gold, precious stones. The South East has more doctors (1 per 875 instead of 1 per 2150), higher life expectancy (63 years/48 years), better services = better standard of living. Equatorial climate and deforestation. Equatorial rainforests
Summary - the distribution of population within a region, country or continent is often influenced by physical factors which include climate and vegetation, relief, soils and natural resources.
New cities built to cater for overspill, relocate and encourage industry, improve environmental conditions
eg Brasilia
* building began 1957, completed 1985.
* Shape of aeroplane - wings 6.5 km long, fuselage 9 km long, land use different in each section
* built for motorists - 3 lanes each direction. Problems - people had to walk long distances between houses/workplaces/shops = accidents
* rivers dammed - large artificial lake for different land use (parks, golfcourse, university, expensive housing)
Rural to urban migration is taking place
* more jobs, cinemas, hospitals, universities in cities
* little land and too many people left in country side
* poor soils and droughts in countryside
* population most dense on coast line near south and south-east - climate warm, rainfall reliable, ease of movement, raw materials - oil, coal, iron ore
* change in distribution - the building of Brasilia has attracted people westwards into interior + development of mineral resources in interior.
Case Study - Population Distribution/migration - Portugal to France
Portugal
* lowest standard of living in EU, workers paid least per hour in EU
* highest proportion of agricultural workers, work on farms hard with little machinery
* only 38% are urban dwellers
* young move to find work and better quality of life elsewhere leaving behind many old people. Families broken up = social problems
many Portuguese moved to France because
* France had a shortage of workers after the 2nd World War. migrants were encouraged, initially to work on farms, later construction industry, factories, hotels etc. Long unsociable hours, poorly paid, prejudice a problem
* many problems for Portuguese - housing poor, long hours but cannot complain because many are illegal immigrants
* bad feeling in France TODAY against migrants
Population Policies
- influenced by total populations and growth rates. Four factors affect population change
. birth rate
. death rate
. in-migration
. out-migration
Page 7
Case Study - Drought - Sahel
- narrow fringe of semi-arid land, south of Sahara Desert, right across Africa
- desert spreading southwards
Causes: climatic change
* decrease in rainfall - drought since 1968 (river and water holes dry up, water table falls, vegetation dies, soil exposed to erosion by wind and water)
* global warming
Causes: population growth - high birth and population growth rates eg Ethiopia 20 million 1950, 50 million 1990, estimated 66 million 2000 = fewer resources but many more people. Pressure on land =
* overgrazing
* overcultivation
* deforestation
Also, many African countries affected by civil war = money not spent on developing agriculture and services + increase in refugees.
Case Study - Floods - Mississippi River, North America
* 3800 km long
* 100 major tributaries
* drainage basin = 1/3 of USA
* frequent flooding = wide flood plain 200 km wide
* river flows above level of flood plain and between natural levees
Flood case study - Summer 1993
* 43 deaths
* 50,000 evacuated
* 26,000 sq km land flooded
* $2.46 billion crop losses
* $12 billion (£8 billion) overall estimated damage
Solutions
* 300 dams & storage reservoirs
* natural levees heightened + strengthened to protect major urban areas
* St Louis levee 18 km long, 16 m high
Page 14
Factors affecting industry
* transport
* land - availability, cost, relief, away from housing
* resources - raw materials
* leisure facilities for workforce
* population - workforce + market place
* power - energy
* technology
* capital investment
* Government influence - tax, grants, policy
*
Page 18
Case Study - Brazil - E.D.C.
Amazon = periphery
Coastal lowlands = core
Government policy to develop periphery = Polamazonia
* begun 1975
* 15 growth poles - mining, HEP, agriculture, ranching
* money from international banks + multinationals
* good = created money
* bad = destroyed rainforest
Rio de Janeiro
* 2nd largest city in Brazil
* urban to urban drift and rural to urban drift: natural increase + migration = dense population
problems
* transport - rush hour
* shanty towns (favelas) Rocinha population 100,000 - upgraded settlement leading to community feeling, self-help schemes to tackle high crime rates
solutions
* develop favelas - improve housing (wood to breeze block) + provide services
* improve community policing - drugs, crime
* Government to encourage more jobs in countryside = stop rural to urban drift
Page 19
Case Study - Population Distribution - France
* crowded population density - near rivers (warm climate, flat relief = tourism + farming), core region -Paris (tourism, industry, centre for banking and administration), west coast (moderate climate + sandy beaches = tourism)
* average density - French plain (agriculture)
* sparse density - mountains 2000+ masl
extreme climate in central France - affected by Europe - less of a moderating influence from sea
Page 21
Measures of Development
* GNP (Gross National Product) - Economic
* PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index) - Social
-literacy/education
-life expectancy
-infant mortality
* HDI (Human Development Index) - combined Social & Economic
-combined income of population
-life expectancy
-education
= leads to world ranking of countries
Page 22
Economic Development of a Country
* bi-lateral aid - one country gives resources directly to another, donor has control over recipient country. recipient countries fall into debt
* multi-lateral aid - international organisations give aid, may be withdrawn in event of economic or political instability
* voluntary aid - no political ties, sustainable + small scale projects appropriate to needs and technology of recipient countries
Stages of Development
Rostow Model
. traditional society - subsistence farming eg Brazilian rainforest
. pre-conditions for take-off - overseas aid, export of raw materials, beginning of manufacturing eg Kenya, Bangladesh
. take-off - increase in manufacturing, technology, one "core" region eg India
. drive to maturity - rapid urbanisation, technology, good transport, decline in primary jobs eg Brazil
. age of high mass consumption - service industry expansion, decline in manufacturing eg Japan, USA, UK, France
Case Study - Trade - India
Munjurpet
* rural village S. India
* co-operatives set up
* employment for women = skills, opportunity for travel, independence, wages
* raising education standards - women less interested in early marriage
* link with UK - "TR/AID CRAFT" (trade + aid). Aims = increase sales in UK, expand jobs in India
Indians did not bring problems on themselves - droughts, floods, earthquakes. Trying to be self-sufficient
Madras
* attractions of city life
* garment factories. Sweat shops - hot, low pay, long hours, no unions
* pay £10-£40 per month, 35 workers produce 2,500 items per day, exported to Europe + USA
K.V.Kuppan
* rural area near Munjurpet
* tailoring unit co-operative
* shop in Bristol, responsible for design
* jobs in tailoring, weaving in India. wages low but reliable = money direct to village = supports local economy
BUT quotas imposed on goods from less developed world (not from Europe or USA)
Conflicting Demands for Land
* mining & quarrying - clay/bricks (Stewartby), landfill sites (leachate, methane)
* tourism - Turkey, areas of outstanding natural beauty (National Parks)
* agriculture - Cheshire Plain, Denmark
* urbanisation (housing & industry) - Developed World (Randstad Holland, Milton Keynes) + Developing World (Cairo, Brasilia)
* storage (water) - Volta Dam
* transport - Bedford By-Pass, BART, Bullet Train, M25/Channel Train
* industrialisation - farming, manufacturing (car - Detroit, Vauxhall), tertiary (shopping in Milton Keynes + Metro Centre), quaternary (hi-tech).
