London Docklands - Managing change in an urban area.

Vimal Arumugam 10P Geography Case Study

The Decline Of Docklands

In the early nineteenth century, companies such as the West India Company began to build docks to allow their ships to moor next to their own warehouses. These were very successful and other companies quickly built new docks such as the London docks and the East India docks. Each time new docks were built, trade increased and these docks all seemed too small. At this time, England was producing a huge range of goods in newly built factories. This period is known as the industrial revolution. The goods made in these factories were sold all over the world. They had to be shipped through ports such as London. At the same time, The British Empire grew and other goods came to London from around the world.

Very soon, the docks could not cope. The decision was made to build new docks further downstream. These were the Royal Docks, which started with the Royal Victoria dock, which was opened in 1855. The Royal Albert dock was finished in 1880. The last of the Royal Docks to be built was the King George the fifth dock, opened in 1921. Many thousands of people worked in the docks. They loaded, moved and unloaded the huge quantities of goods traded through the docks. Most things had to be moved several times. They were then put in warehouses, packed and put on lorries or trains to be moved again. Dock work was poorly paid and often dangerous.

During the 1960s workers demanded better pay and conditions. This made the docks more expensive to run. At the same time, companies were looking for more efficient quick ways of dealing with the vast quantities of goods. Container lorries were invented. A container is a large metal box, which is lifted by a crane and fixed onto the back of a special lorry. Containers are packed at the factory and locked so the goods cannot be stolen. Containers are loaded on and off ships quickly in large numbers using cranes. Fewer people can move larger quantities. They can be moved on lorries or trains to any destination very easily.

This new way of moving goods has meant that the large number of dockworkers is no longer needed The River Thames and the docks along the river are too difficult and too crowded to use for the very large ships, which carry the containers. The dock companies decided to use other ports such as Tilbury and Felixstowe, which are next to the sea and are not crowded by poor roads and a large city. The docks along the River Thames, including the Royal Docks closed in the late 1960s and early 1970s with the loss of thousands of jobs. Uses have gradually been found for the docks. These include recreational buildings, i.e. cinemas; shopping centres have been built for residents, new flats overlooking the office buildings and the city. The city has been made into a place for business worker and residents.

The Redevelopment Area

What is the LDDC?

The LDDC (LONDON DOCKLANDS DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION) was an urban development corporation, the second to be established by the Government under the Local Government, Planning and Land Act 1980.

The Task of the LDDC

The 1980 Act requires an urban development corporation "to secure the regeneration of its area, by bringing land and buildings into effective use, encouraging the development of existing and new industry and commerce, creating an attractive environment and ensuring that housing and social facilities are available to encourage people to live and work in the area.

Achievements of the LDDC

The Corporation was at work for 17 years. This is what they had achieved in the 17 years of work:

£1.86 billion in public sector investment
£7.7 ...

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The Task of the LDDC

Achievements of the LDDC

The Corporation was at work for 17 years. This is what they had achieved in the 17 years of work:

£1.86 billion in public sector investment
£7.7 billion in private sector investment
1,066 acres of land sold for redevelopment
144 km of new and improved roads
The construction of the Docklands Light Railway
25 million sq feet of commercial /industrial floor space built
1,884 acres of derelict land reclaimed
24,046 new homes built
2,700 businesses trading
Contributions to 5 new health centres and the redevelopment of 6 more
Funding towards 11 new primary schools, 2 secondary schools, 3 post-16 colleges and 9 vocational training centres.
94 awards for architecture, conservation and landscaping
85,000 now at work in London Docklands

Interested Parties

Docklands success is entirely due to its single regeneration agency - the first of its kind in Britain - called the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) which was given "draconian powers" to regenerate the eight square miles (22 square kilometres) of derelict Docks stretching six miles east to west and following the line of the River Thames. Reg Ward, a little-known New Town architect/planner, provided the vision, grit and determination to succeed. Reg Ward recruited 300 staff and consultants to regenerate London Docklands and kept them all on their toes by moving his command headquarters to a succession of locations throughout the area. Almost like other dictators changing their accommodation to avoid assassins in the night.

The opposition to the LDDC battalions came from local councils opposed to his methods (jealous of his progress), "wet" Tory Government ministers and wary civil servants who loved to meddle and muddle.

The Ward regime fell suddenly, the day after he concluded the biggest property deal in history with the developers of Canary Wharf in a war room manned by scores of lawyers, advisors, civil servants and spin doctors. He was forced to resign by his timorous political masters. His successor, a high-ranking army officer lasted 11 working days before he beat a hasty retreat from the Docklands regeneration trenches. His successors did not equal the impact of the Reg Ward Years as the LDDC lurched from crisis to crisis and became embroiled in long running feuds with Whitehall over transport, education, local housing and local politics the main issues getting in the way of regeneration. After these divisions the LDDC was given more time to complete the task but even this was not enough to start regenerating the Royal Docks, the Jewel in the Crown because of their vastness and potential.

The Changes To Docklands

Environment Change

The LDDC halted the filling in of the docks and has refurbished them to a high quality, opening them up to the public - 3.7 miles (6 km) of waterfront accessible in 1981, 31 miles (50 km) in 1998 - with elegant footbridges to mitigate the barrier effect. Water sports facilities have been or are being provided in every dock, and robust, well-funded arrangements have been made for securing their good management into the long term.

The Corporation has had an active policy of providing wildlife habitats. Amongst its numerous projects it has created an ecology park at Bow Creek and a wildfowl sanctuary at East India Dock Basin.

The Corporation has sought to create an attractive environment - with high quality of urban design, street furniture, public art, open spaces (including the 23 acre (9 ha.)(Thames Barrier Park currently under construction at Silver town). It has planted 160,000 trees and won 94 awards for excellence in landscaping, planning, architecture and conservation. In 1982 the Corporation invited the Secretary of State to review the register of listed buildings in Docklands. As a result, a further 116 buildings and structures were added to the existing 210 on the list. The LDDC embarked on an extensive programme of repair and restoration. In contrast with the situation in 1981/82 few, if any, listed buildings in Docklands are at risk in 1998. The LDDC extended four of the 10 conservation areas existing in 1981 and added 18 more.

Economic Change

Transport

About half the Corporation's £1.86 billion investment has been spent on transport infrastructure:

The 18 miles (29 km) 128 station DLR (investment to date £734 m) is now reliably carrying more than 80,000 passengers daily. The £200 million Lewisham extension, funded by the private sector, is under construction and will open in 2000 with five new stations south of the Thames.
The LDDC has built or had a major part in the procurement of 72 miles (1 16 km) of new or improved roads.
The Corporation has provided high specification pedestrian and cycle networks and has given priority to ensuring that Docklands is fully accessible to all, including disabled people.
The Corporation has promoted an integrated transport policy, which has delivered a modal split, on the Isle of Dogs Central Business District for instance, of 27% private to 73% public transport at peak hour travel.
The docklands light railway was built to transport the public all over London Docklands.

The Corporation has fostered London City Airport which carried 1.2 million passengers in 1997 and has championed the Jubilee Line Extension of the Underground which, opening in Spring 1999, will be able to carry 22,000 people an hour in each direction and connect London Docklands directly with London Bridge and Waterloo BR stations and the West End.

Jobs

The impact of private sector investment on employment has been very substantial. Since 1981, the number of employers has more than doubled from 1021 to 2690. Employment has grown to 85,000 from 27,200 in 1981 and the numbers will continue to grow rapidly. Forecast working population in 2014 is 175,000.

Levels of unemployment within Docklands are inevitably affected by prevailing trends in the national and, in particular, the London-wide economic cycle. However, the dramatic transformation in public transport, enabling Docklands residents to access a far wider labour market, the growth in local employment opportunities and improved educational provision and staying on rates have had a beneficial effect on unemployment in Docklands. In 1981 there were 3,533 unemployed residents out of an economically active population of 19,788. In December 1997 there were 2,883 unemployed residents out of an estimated economically active population of 40,077. The respective unemployment rates were 17.8% in 1981 and 7.2% in December 1997.

Social Change

In 1981 housing in the UDA was of poor quality and in short supply.

9.1 % of stock was classified as overcrowded.
20% was classified as being in poor or uninhabitable condition.
95% of the housing was rented, mostly (83%) through the local authorities. Owner occupation was 5%.
In the five years from 1976-1981 there were only 1,140 local authority, 167 housing association and two private sector dwellings built in the whole of Docklands.

The stock of dwellings in 1981 was 15,000. By March 1998 it was 38,000. Over 24,000 homes have been completed under the auspices of the LDDC. Of these some 17,700 were for owner occupation, 5,300 for housing associations and nearly 1,000 for local authorities.

The LDDC has granted aided the building of 2,000 new social housing units and contributed to the refurbishment of 8,000 existing dwellings. These figures do not include the provision of nearly 600 homes for those re-housed under The Accord with the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. The proportion of home ownership has leapt from 5% to 45% - still below the London average.

The Corporation through its £1.86 billion investment of public money has levered in £7.2 billion of employment generating private investment: hotels, restaurants, shops, factories, print works, offices and leisure facilities: 25 million sq. ft (2.3 million sq. m.) since 1981. The variety is sufficiently large to give Docklands an economy with a diverse character more like that of the West End than that of the City. Although financial and business services are the largest employment sectors with 43% of the jobs, manufacturing is the third largest at 19% and there are more manufacturing jobs in Docklands now than there were in 1981. Tourism is growing strongly, with Docklands receiving 2.1 million visitors last year. Five hotels and a youth hostel have been built and four more hotels are under development. When the developments in the Royal Docks come on stream, the diversity of the economy will be even more pronounced.

Has Docklands Been A Success?

Opinions vary about how well the Corporation succeeded in its regeneration task and the extent to which its work was a benefit to the original inhabitants of its area.

The LDDC has successfully tackled the widespread multiple market failure, which prevailed in the London Docklands in 1981. Failures in land, housing and commercial property markets have been addressed and labour market failures have been alleviated by a combination of training projects, improvements in accessibility in and out of Docklands and the creation of new local jobs.
When all projects are completed the total public sector cost of regenerating Docklands will be of the order of £3,900 million, 48% incurred by the LDDC, 25% by London Transport and 27% by the Isle of Dogs Enterprise Zone. Almost half the public sector cost of regenerating Docklands was devoted to transport infrastructure.
Private sector investment in Docklands, at £8,700 million by March 1998, has been substantial and will continue to increase well into the next century.
The LDDC has generated a wide range of economic, environmental and social benefits. Prominent amongst these are over 24,000 housing units and over 80,000 gross jobs within the Urban Development Area (UDA). Housing tenure is substantially more varied, employment is three times higher, the number of firms has increased fivefold and the new stock of housing will accommodate an additional 45,000 population.
With respect to value-for-money, the evaluation concluded that every £1M of public sector cost generated net additional benefits in the UDA of 23 jobs, 8500 sq m of office floor space, 7.8 housing units plus many other diverse and intermediate benefits. Since almost all the costs have been incurred and some of the benefits have still to materialise, this cost-benefit ratio should be more favourable by a third when the end state position is reached in 2010 or 2015.
In spite of vociferous comments to the contrary over the life of the Corporation, the LDDC generated substantial benefits specifically for local communities and residents. The amount of new social housing is higher than it would have been in the absence of the Corporation.
In the wider local economy, the net impact of LDDC activities is lower, but even so, the LDDC generated an additional 23,000 jobs in Central London by increasing the supply of high-grade office accommodation, which led to a more competitive financial centre.

‘Has the LDDC been a success or a failure? There is no doubt that walking through the Docklands today is a more pleasurable experience than it would have been had the regeneration not taken place. The DLR and Jubilee Line make travelling round the ‘new Docklands‘ quick and easy. It is unarguable that the LDDC brought back economic activity to the part of London - but at what price? In many ways the LDDC only exacerbated the differences between rich and poor, luxury flats and council housing. If there is a lesson to be learnt from the Docklands story it is that throwing money, public or private, at a problem doesn‘t make it go away.