Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (Economic Surveys and Statistical Abstract for various years).
While tourism is sensitive to the level of economic activity in the tourist generating countries, it provides higher and stable earnings than those from primary products. Tourism earnings have tended to increase at a higher rate than earnings from other export commodities in a number of countries. The earnings incurred are in turn used to offset shortfalls on the visible trading account, and hence are of critical importance in the financial reckoning.
Tourism contributes greatly to Government Revenue through licence fees, customs and exercise duty, VAT on tourism services, landing fees, passenger service charge, entry fees to game parks as well as income tax levied on employees in the tourism industry. The generated revenues play a pivotal role in the overall development of the economy.
3.3. Tourism and Development of Infrastructure
The benefits accruing from investments in such infrastructure and superstructure as airports, hotels and restaurants,road network, communications, power and water supply as well as other related public utilities are widely shared with other sectors of the economy. Their development enhances the overall development at the local level and also encourages greater economic diversification.
It has been argued that tourism has a larger multiplier effects than any other sector since every unit of tourist expenditure goes through several rounds of income creation and expenditure before its effect is exhausted. For instance, money spent by a tourist on hotel accommodation, food and beverages, shopping, entertainment and transport, does not stagnate but provides an income to hotel staff, taxi operators, shopkeepers and suppliers of goods and services. They in turn spend part of this income on their daily requirements of goods and services. Hence money accruing from tourism circulates through numerous segments of the economy through the multiplier process.
3.4. Tourism and Regional Development
Tourism has been cited as a major promoter of international goodwill and understanding as well a prime means of developing social and cultural understanding on the local level. Accordingly foreign visitors are considered to be the best ambassadors of their respective countries. In view of the fact that we are living in a global village, thanks to advances in communication technology, the industry contributes significantly to international commerce and good relations among nations.
It is worth noting also that the development of tourism may serve as an important vehicle in promoting economic advancement of less developed areas that are not endowed with alternative resources. In this regard such developments play an important part in redressing regional developments and income distribution imbalances.
4.0 SHIFT OF FOCUS IN THE NATIONAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT POLICY
The Kenya Government has shifted its focus from over reliance on high volume low yield tourism towards the development of other alternative forms of tourism which contribute to conservation of the environment. In other words, whereas attention is still focused on tourism segments in which Kenya has comparative advantage, for example, wildlife, sun, sea and sand , special attention is now being given to the impact of the sector on the environment.
A new approach which is aimed at re-enforcing the universally accepted Eco-Tourism and other forms of alternative Tourism has been outlined in the Tourism policy framework and emphasized in the National Tourism Development Master Plan. This document has chartered the way forward into the new millennium. Some of the salient factors considered in the new policy focus include:-
Conservation and utilisation of tourism resources in a sustainable manner.
Conservation of the environment and preservation of scenic beauty;
Provision of visitor education pertaining to available resources and their interdependence without compromising our concern on biodiversity;
Establishing active partnership with all stakeholders in tourism and at the same time respecting their rights;
Equitable distribution of benefits accruing from tourism
Respect and safeguarding of the local customs and culture;
and
Harmonious development of the tourism sector in tandem with other economic sectors.
4.1. Tourism and the Environment
Mass Tourism and discriminating tourists, who are only pre-occupied with the "big five" mentality have in the past years contributed to the degradation of the environment and harassment of wildlife.
Thanks to the Eco-tourism concept which has been championed by the tourist destinations globally with a view to changing the big "five" mammal mentality and developing other environmentally friendly types of tourism. Eco- tourism is thus an important concept in tourism development. The latter incorporates a strong commitment to nature and a sense of social responsibility. In this respect, the present and future generations are urged to conserve the environment while the Government is committed to strengthening and enforcing anti-poaching and nature based conservation policies which will ensure the development of responsible tourism in the country.
It should be noted, however, that eco-tourists prefer the use of local resources and expertise which in turn translates into import savings. The use of local resources and expertise also translates into environmentally sensitive patterns and local participation in the travel industry.
Its emphasis on local resources and employment makes it attractive to developing countries, which though rich in natural resources are disadvantaged by rural poverty and lack of export earnings.
The value of biodiversity is more widely appreciated in the whole world. However, pressure on wildlife and their natural habitats is increasing due to encroachment of human activities and intensified resource extraction. Accordingly conservation of biodiversity must be seen within the wider context of national economies, social goals and aspirations.
4.2. Tourism and Cultural Resources
Tourism has always been considered a vital medium for widening the scope of human interests. It contributes positively to the naturing and exploitation of cultural heritage of nations. It therefore serves indirectly to improve individual cultural understanding of both residents and foreigners while at the same time contributing to the Gross National Product. At the local level domestic tourism creates understanding and appreciation of the attractions thereby contributing to sustainable tourism development.
4.3 ECO-TOURISM IN KENYA - A CASE STUDY
Since independence in 1963 , Kenya has been a leader in the field of conservation of wildlife and biodiversity both aquatic and land based. The Kenya National Tourism Development Master Plan beyond the year 2000 focuses on better distribution of tourists so as to relieve stress on existing areas of visitation, thereby minimising environmental degregation. These aforementioned nobel objectives will be achieved through:-
Improved travel conditions to less visited touristic areas.
incorporation of nature and culture as major considerations. In order to be compatible with the popular wildlife and beach attractions, laws pertaining to wildlife conservation reviewed to take the following aspects into account:-
Integration and sustainable conservation and management of wildlife.
minimizing human - wildlife conflict.
Developing and promoting sustainable nature-based tourism.
Maximizing community participation in tourism development.
The concept of Beach Management Programme has been implemented along the Kenya Coast so as to ensure that the beach is developed and managed as an integrated ecosystem for recreation and conservation purposes. This initiative is being realised through the consulted efforts between the Ministry of Tourism, Kenya Wildlife Service and hoteliers on the beach.
The programme is aimed at enhancing the conservation of the coral reef and other forms of biodiversity along the Coast. The beach management programme entails:-
Control of population encroachment on protected areas.
Regulation of commercial activities along the beaches.
Ensuring visitor safety at the beaches.
To this end a multi sectoral commission of the Kenya Tourist Industry has been created whose terms of reference include:-
Conducting a country - wide audit of eco-tourism resources and products
Conducting the requisite environmental impact assessment studies
Formulating appropriate policies and guidelines on:-
(a) Land Tenure;
(b) Types of development to be allowed;
(c) Revenue sharing;
and
(d) Planning and zoning
capacity building
Licensing and rating
Marketing Planning
The major players within the National Eco-tourism Institutional framework whose active participation is instrumental in attaining the desired development of sustainable tourism include:-
4.3(a). THE GOVERNMENT
The Tourism industry in Kenya operates within a liberalized economic environment that is characterised by active partnership between the Government and the private sector. While the private sector is expected to be the motive force, the Ministry of Tourism is charged with the responsibility of formulation and implementation of policies a kin to tourism as well as co-ordination of planning, development, promotion and marketing of tourism. The functions of the Government may be summarized as follows:-
(i) Formulation and implementation of general policy guidelines for the tourism industry;
(ii) Setting the required targets such as:-
- increasing the contribution of the sector to the National Gross Domestic Product, through increased foreign exchange earnings and retention from the sector;
- increase the sector's employment generating capacity.
- conserving and protecting the environment;
- diversification of the tourism product range and source markets;
- developing sustainable tourism; and
- the development of all facets of tourism.
(iii) Planning, development and regulation of tourism activities;
(iv) Licencing, classifying and upholding the quality of tourism facilities and services;
(v) Co-ordination and Consultation with other government Ministries and departments in order to facilitate tourism development by providing the necessary enabling environment;
(vi) The Ministry has also the responsibility of overseeing the operations of such State Corporations as:-
The Kenya Tourism Development Corporation, which lends to and advises investors in the tourism industry.
The Kenya Utalii College which trains all cadres of manpower for the hotel and tourism sub sectors.
The Catering Levy Trustee, which collects training levy on the sale of food, drinks and accommodation for purposes of funding training programmes for the hotel and tourism sub-sectors.
The Bomas of Kenya which is the national conservatory of Kenya's diverse cultural heritage where traditional rituals, dance and music are performed for the benefit of both visitors and the local people.
The Kenya Tourist Board which is charged with promotion and marketing of the destination both locally and internationally.
The Kenya Wildlife Service which is not an integral part of the Ministry of Tourism, is vested with the responsibility of conservation and management of wildlife, and the maintenance of infrastructure, within the National Parks and Game Reserves.
(vii) The Ministry co-ordinates Kenya's Tourism Promotion worldwide; and
(viii) Co-ordinates bilateral and multilateral relations in tourism with other Governments, Non-governmental Organisations as well as other Donor Agencies.
In addition, the Government provides such basic infrastructure for tourism development, as roads, educational programmes and the requisite security. It should also be noted that the Government is responsible for demarcating, protecting and gazetting all protected areas.
4.3(b). COUNTY COUNCILS
Most areas and communities where tourism is developed are under the authority of local County Councils. These Councils therefore play an important role in tourism development and are responsible for the following:-
provision of incentives for tourism investment and management as well as provision of the requisite amenities for tourism development;
development of visitor management systems through zoning and land use policies aimed at securing participation by the local communities;
formulation and implementation of enforcement programmes pertaining to proper and ethical use of protected areas;
investing in improved tourism infrastructure such as roads and rural electrification;
developing consistent concession policies which are meant to enhance visitor management within the National Parks and Game Reserves;
liaising with communities on development projects to be funded by the tourism sector.
(c) The Kenya Wildlife Service: The organisation is important since it is the primary custodian of the country's flora and fauna. Its active participation has ensured reasonable resolution of human/wildlife conflict. However a lot remains to be done in this area.
(d) The National Environmental Secretariat: The Secretariat co-ordinates the activities of the various Non-Government Environmental Organisations. Its contribution is important in the provision of vital environmental data and guidelines as required by the key players in the development of eco-tourism as and when required by the key players.
(e) The Eco-tourism society of Kenya: This is a voluntary association of individuals and corporate bodies with mutual interest in tourism. It provides a platform for the resolutions of conflicts pertaining to conservation and the operations of tourism industry through:-
bringing together commercial, conservation and the local communities interested in sustainable tourism development;
promoting responsible and sustainable tourism;
protecting the integrity of the natural and cultural attractions which are the bedrock of the industry.
The Eco-tourism society of Kenya and it's members aim at improving and promoting the image an ideal eco-tourism Kenya as a tourist destination by:-
(i) Fostering tourism practices which can contribute to the conservation of Kenya's natural environment and thereby improve the lives of the communities living in close proximity to the protected areas;
(ii) Developing suitable framework of Environmental Management standards relating to both tourist attractions and facilities;
(iii) Devising and publishing eco-tourism regulations and codes of conduct;
(iv) Increasing environmental awareness as well as developing strategies appropriate to mitigate negative ecological, cultural, social and economic impact of tourism;
(v) Carrying out empirical research and pilot tests relating to new approaches and initiation and promoting projects which conform to the dictates of eco-tourism;
(vi) Providing professional, advisory and consultancy services in policy, formulation research, planning and management of eco-tourism;
(vii) Participation in relevant educational and training programmes as well as developing professional standards, certification and licensing systems that are in sync with Eco-tourism.
(f). INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
In Kenya both individuals and groups are encouraged to host wildlife on their lands under the Kenya Wildlife Service Programme known as "Winning space for Wildlife". When Promoted hand in hand with nature based tourism, the programme enhances conservation and also ploughs back benefits to the host community. Other features of "Winning Space for Wildlife" programme include non-interference with land ownership and such other traditional economic activities as crop farming.
(g). NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (NGO)
There is a large number of resident conservation oriented Non-Governmental organizations which promote eco-tourism through:
(i) Public education on conservation
(ii) Developmental studies, position papers and codes for sustainable use of natural resources
(iii) Publication of tourist information literature.
(iv) Organizing annual workshops on conservation and environmental management.
(v) Organizing seminars and workshops to promote community input into the management of nature and cultural tourism.
(h). THE KENYA ASSOCIATION OF TOUR OPERATORS (KATO)
The Kenya Association of Tour Operators is an Association of the leading and most experienced tour operators in Kenya. Its members are governed by a code of conduct which requires them to conduct business in an ethical and responsible manner. The Association works closely with the Ministry of Tourism and other stakeholders for the promotion of eco-tourism. These other players include:-
The Kenya Wildlife Service on the beach management programme and the development of park use rules.
The Ministry of Tourism, Kenya Wildlife Service and Safari Guides Association on the development and observance of a code of conduct for visitors and tour operators.
Eco tourism Society of Kenya and other Non-Governmental organisations on identifying and advising on the potentials of nature based tourism among various communities.
Local communities on capacity building and maximization of revenue generation. For example with the help of the Kenya Association of Tour Operators assistance, two groups adjacent to the Mara Reserve were able to raise their revenues from US$ 83,000 to US$ 2 Million within a year.
Organising annual workshops on the conservation and environmental management for sustainable tourism development.
Organizing seminars and workshop to promote community input in the management of nature and cultural tourism.
In addition other notable stakeholders include established trade Associations that serve both as lobby groups and active participants in the overall development and marketing of Kenya as a tourist destination. These include:-
Kenya Association of Hotel Keepers and Caterers (KAHC);
Kenya Budget Hotels;
Kenya Association of Travel Agents (KATA);
Mombasa and Coast Tourist Association (MCTA);
Kenya Budget Hotels Association;
Kenya Air Charter Operators Association; and
The Board of Airlines Representatives.
An active partnership exists between the Associations and the Government with optimum performance of the tourism industry being the common goal. Consultation and dialogue among all the stakeholders is a guiding principle in Kenya's tourism development.
4.4 SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTIVE WILDLIFE UTILIZATION AND ECO-TOURISM
The concept of sustainable consumptive wildlife utilization has been formulated so as to counter the negative trends that were inherited from the wildlife based tourism and wildlife management policies that existed during and soon after the colonial period up to late 1970's. By then, conservation and tourism policies overlooked the interests of the local people by emphasizing control and regulations while neglecting incentives that would contribute to the success of wildlife conservation and management programmes in the country. The local people were denied an opportunity to make their contributions towards wildlife conservation and management as they were kept off protected areas.
There was initially a lukewarm acceptance of the policy guideline that "Kenya had an obligation of protecting the country's fauna and flora for posterity" by the local communities in whose areas the attractions abound. Equally, educational approaches and extension efforts were not very successful as the local communities were not benefitting directly from those resources within their areas.
Empirical research however, indicated that direct sharing of benefits accruing from wildlife conservation and tourism were better appreciated by the local communities. These inadequacies which were inherent in the conservation policies of the 1970's thus led to the current concept of sustainable wildlife utilisation whereby economic sense and the utility of the product superseeds other considerations and in the process ensuring that the resource is managed on a rational and sustainable basis. The concept entails optimum resource management, efficiency in productivity as well as equitable sharing of the benefits.
The Kenya Government, through it's conservation arm, the Kenya Wildlife Service has put in place measures that ensure co-opting the support and participation of land owners in the management of wildlife. This involves sensitization, mobilization as well as education of the stakeholders.
The Kenya Wildlife Service has also put in place appropriate measures which are aimed at capacity building by the relevant institutions in order that all the stakeholders become competent wildlife managers with adequate knowledge and skills regarding the contribution of wildlife visa-a-vis such alternative land uses as livestock keeping and agriculture. Optimum or sustainable consumptive wildlife utilisation therefore may only be achieved after area specific feasibility studies are carried out to determine its viability and compatibility with non-consumptive uses.
Another important consideration is the sensitivity to the disparity in culture, ecology, and topography in the context of changing technology pertaining to game cropping, culling, game ranching, game farming and sale of live animals . The concept also entails accommodation of public interest without necessarily compromising private and community interests.
4.5. COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP IN THE STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA
The rich cultural diversity is an integral part of our tourist attractions since it is one of the main reasons why visitors travel to the outlying rural areas of Kenya. This product is therefore being developed and promoted as this type of tourism can strengthen a society's culture and create employment at local levels thereby serving as an incentive for young people to stay in rural areas rather than migrate to urban areas in search of employment.
It is with the foregoing in mind that made it necessary that sustainable tourism development be based on the ethics of care and respect for the respective communities' culture. This approach ensures that the development is both people oriented as well as conservation based.
Sustainable tourism in other words, means, using tourism constructively so as to support the conservation of the environment, reinforcing the cultural heritage of indigenous people as well as enabling them to benefit directly from revenue accruing from tourism and related activities.
Kenya as a tourist destination has therefore adopted and encouraged sustainable tourism strategies in order to strike a balance between the needs of the industry and those of the local communities. Accordingly it has been found necessary to find ways and means of ploughing back the benefits accruing from tourism to the development of the local population. The main consideration here is to improve their living conditions, security, and their access to social services. Hence the important issues being addressed in this context include:-
reducing vulnerability of exploitation of local communities by unscrupulous people and
How to enhance retention of income accruing from tourism by the local communities so as to plough back into community based development projects.
4.5(a) FUNDING OF THE KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE COMMUNITY BASED CONSERVATION EFFORTS
Apart from core financing and moral support from the Central Government; community based conservation effort in Kenya has also benefitted from donor funding and private initiatives. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
For instance in 1992, contracted with an American (U.S.) consulting company, namely "Development Alternatives, Inc". for the implementation of the Kenya Wildlife Serrvice's Conservation of Biodiverse Resource Areas Project (COBRA) for a maximum investment by USAID of US$7,000,000. The amount has since been raised to US$8,500,000 and the time frame of the project has also been extended up to December, 1999.
The goal of the COBRA project is to promote Socio-economic development through conservation and sustainable management of Kenya's natural resources. The main objective is to increase the flow of socio-economic benefits to local communities living adjacent to Kenya's National Parks and Reserves through the sustainable management of wildlife and other natural resources. This project has assisted in enhancing community awareness in conservation and wildlife management.
The Conservation of Biodiverse Resource Areas Project (COBRA) has assisted the Kenya Wildlife Service in institutionalising a community based conservation component namely "the Partnership Department", within the Organisation through the provision of salary support to professional staff, training of lower cadres and procurement of vehicles, computers, and the necessary field equipment.
The COBRA project has also assisted in the implementation of pilot community conservation programmes in three focal Districts; namely Laikipia, Samburu and Kajiado since 1993 as well as the coastal areas South of Mombasa.
Although the COBRA project has assisted communities in the planning and implementation of community based development projects such as the construction of schools, clinics, water tanks among others, the project's main thrust since 1995 has been focused on the support of enterprises related to eco-tourism, which depend directly on wildlife.
4.5(b) ALTERNATIVE FUNDING: PRIVATE ENTREPRENEURSHIP/ PARTNERSHIP APPROACH -
A CASE STUDY: LEWA DOWNS CONSERVANCY/ IL NGWESI
The Lewa Downs Conservancy was formed to manage 55,000 acres of prime wildlife land for the purpose of protecting such endangered species as black Rhino and grevy Zebra, to establish Wildlife as a viable form of land use as well as to encourage the neighbouring land owners maintain wildlife migration routes. The conservancy has emphasized community involvement by the neighbouring land-owners. The projects include:- the development and operation of a health clinic, the establishment of community trust aimed at improving the standards of living of those juxtaposing the conservancy and assisting with the support of two community based wildlife trusts whose prime objectives are to use wildlife as a resource to generate money for people in neighbouring communities.
A unique relationship was created between the Lewa Downs Conservancy and the "IL NGWESI TOURIST LODGE", an income generating project, with a view to forming an ideal eco-tourism system.
The IL Ngwesi Tourist Lodge which is located on Il Ngwesi Group Ranch (in North Eastern Laikipia) was built with Donor funding for the benefit of both visitors to Lewa Downs Conservancy and Borana ranch.
The lodge has four bandas of unique architecture which are situated on an ideal site that overlooks the Mukogodo Escarpment and forest to the south and southwest and the picturesque hills of Wamba, Samburu Game Reserve, Mathews range and Sapashe to the North west. Natural materials have been used to construct the Bandas in order to blend with the environment thus making it an attractive eco-lodge.
Construction of the lodge started in January 1996 and opened its doors to tourists on 19th December 1996. As of November 1997, it had grossed US$ 42,000 against an investment of US$ 140,000. The initial funding came from the Kenya Wildlife Service; and from Liz Clairborne and Art Ortenbury Foundations of U.S.A.
The marketing and promotion of the lodge has been by word of mouth, but nevertheless the lodge has attracted a very enthusiastic clientele of expatriates living in Nairobi who are out to seek quietude and adventure in the in the African bush. To diversify activities, a cultural boma has been opened and is visited by tourists from the lodge, Borana Ranch and the Lewa conservancy.
Proceeds from the lodge are re-invested in community based development projects such as schools, cattle dips, water, bursary schemes and the group ranch members share dividends at the end of each year. The community formed a land management committee that limits the land to be set a side for cattle ranching. The losses incurred as a result of limited land for ranching are offset by revenues generating from the operations of the lodge and annual dividends.
The Kenya Wildlife Service sensitizes and mobilizes the community through Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs), workshops, study tours and training of committee members on leadership and record keeping, as well as training scouts from the community. A general meeting is held each year to discuss the utilisation of funds realised from the bandas.
Nearly all employees of the Il Ngwesi Bandas are members of the community. The Bandas thus have shown that the community based wildlife conservation projects can raise income and has also demonstrated the utility of the local natural resources. The enterprise has positively changed the attitude of the group ranch members towards wildlife conservation. This is a typical success story of an eco-tourism enterprise that has created direct linkages between conservation of the community land and tourism related wildlife projects by providing a focus for the community to preserve the environment and the rationale to do it.
The tripartite co-operation between Lewa Downs conservancy, the community and the Kenya Wildlife Service partnership programme has created a model worth emulating in the development of sustainable tourism and distribution of benefits, especially in communities based in remote areas of Kenya. Il Ngwesi is a model product which is essentially a major departure from the "Big Five" syndrome that has been a driving force for our Safari visitors.
It is important to note from this model the low cost capital out lay as compared to the unique compatibility of the projects and the distribution of the accrued benefits to the local communities.
The Eco tourism Society of Kenya endeavours to help promote tourism in Kenya by projecting a positive image and encouraging high standards, green certification, carrying out consumer surveys offering consultancy services, advice and information, public information, public relations, organizing conferences and seminars, publishing appropriate newsletters, brochures and books as well as conducting research.
5.0 DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM INDUSTRY WITHIN AFRICA REGION
Destinations in Africa enjoy a privileged position in relation to the major tourist generating markets due mainly to their unique features, history as well as a wide range of products on offer. The strong awareness for conservation of the environment and the demand for exoticism by potential travellers translates into increasing demand by an ever growing number of foreign visitors. Accordingly there is need for destinations in Africa to co-operate more closely in areas of product development, research, manpower development and training as well as exchange of tourism experts and tourism information. It is also necessary to harmonise travel formalities within the region so as to encourage free flow of visitors and maximisation of benefits accruing from tourism interactions within the region. Indeed such close co-operation can be forged and enhanced within the framework of the existing regional economic groupings such as the Common market for Eastern and Southern Africa(Comesa), Preferential Trade Area (PTA), Sadacc, East Africa Co-operation, Indian Ocean rim association for regional co-operation. These economic groupings can play a pivotal role in positioning Africa to be a major force in the envisaged tourism growth.
In the development, promotion and marketing of our respective destinations we should always bear in mind the complementary nature of our products within the region. Secondly although by and large the countries within the region are destination countries rather than tourist generating countries, there is a vast market for intra-regional tourism, which has not yet been fully tapped. This observation holds true for example for both the Republic of South Africa and Kenya, which incidentally share a lot in common. However the free flow of visitors from each country has been hampered by among others, travel formalities and failure to capitalise on our complementality.
6.0 CONCLUSION
Most of Africa's Eco-system still remain intact and unspoiled thus providing a strong basis for a sustainable tourism development. All that is required proper planning and management of the available resources.
It should be born in mind that sustainable tourism cannot thrive if we do not take care of our fragile environment. In this context, therefore, we should always remember the cardinal point that we all have a duty to practice responsible tourism so that at the end of the day we shall be able to conserve our fragile environment and biodiversity for the benefit of mankind. To this end there is therefore, an urgent need to put the necessary legislations and codes of conduct in place so as to ensure balanced development of tourism in African tourist destinations. Exchange of information and experience among African National would also be vital in achieving the requisite results for the development of sustainable tourism in conservation of the environment.
