There is however some concern that the social cohesion of these communities that has remained in balance for many years will gradually break down as the number of tourist services, facilities and influx of people increases. Cheng (1980) suggested that in such instances there may be population shifts and community values and objectives may change.
It is therefore important, that lessons are learnt from tourism developments elsewhere, even south of the Arctic Circle where tourism acts on a much grander scale with its huge national parks, in particular Banff Townsite. Once a ‘friendly, quiet town in the mountains’, the past twenty years has seen Banff become a bustling resort town, known for its congestion, commercialisation and urban qualities (Cheng, 1980). Whilst shop owners and the like have benefited, growing tourism has forced many residents to subsequently leave the town in search of somewhat quieter surroundings. Baffin Island (see figure 1) found in the Baffin Region of the Northwest Territory could learn from Banff’s tourism growth explosion since it itself is rapidly becoming a tourism hotspot, offering fishing, hunting, naturalist activities and tours focusing on the culture, history and art (see figure 2) of its indigenous Inuit people (Milne et. al., 1995).
Figure 2: Visual arts of the Inuit people
(Source: Detroit Virtual Zoo, 2002)
Once struggling for economic success the number of summer vacationers in Baffin as reported by Milne et al (1994) doubled between 1979 and 1988. Whilst tourism has brought greater autonomy to the region the boom may have its negative effects in that over exposure with the outside world may be drastically changing Inuit life. There is of course the danger that the language and identity of these communities may be lost in a changing world.
The Northwest Territories however still have a long way to go before tourism demand reaches scales met in towns such as Banff since the territory still only shares 17.2% of the North American tourism market (Hamley, 1991), competing against the Yukon and Alaska, regions which provide a wider range of services and activities that tourists expect.
Arctic tourism therefore remains a small niche-market unable to sustain a local economy on its own. For example, since many local businesses are often forced to ‘import’ goods and services in order to cater to tourist demands, much of the money that reaches the communities ‘leaks’ out before it has a chance to generate ‘downstream’ jobs and other related sectors of the economy (Milne et al., 1995). It should therefore realistically be viewed as an additional economic activity in most Northern Regions.
Nature based tourism is proving especially popular with almost every Arctic country promoting it. Arctic tourism is therefore now primarily nature-based and as a result highly vulnerable to disturbances and degradation of its main attraction i.e., its scenery and wildlife. Milne et al. (1995) described the growth of ‘ecotourism’ as tourism which aside from cultural interests is more interested in conservation of the environment. Ecotourism will often attract a different type of clientele interested in minimising any negative impacts they may leave in their wake (Milne et al,. 1995), aware of their presence on local cultures and likely to spend more money on local products. Thus, Arctic regions endorsing this type of tourism may be promoting sustainable economic growth.
Another type of Arctic tourism on the increase is cruise tourism. Cruise tourism has its benefits and its costs. Firstly, cruise ships bring all their own facilities. In communities where there is little infrastructure to support large numbers of tourists, this can be an advantage since communities can concentrate on supplying, for example, cultural goods. Secondly, in larger communities, cruise tourism can cause bitterness since the economic benefits basically go to only a handful of locals and often to tourism operators from outside the Arctic. Cruise ships may also land too many passengers, overwhelming the capacities of small communities.
Since the Arctic tourism season is extremely short (three or four months), the challenge is how can these communities justify major expenditures on facilities which in effect only provides temporary work? What about the rest of the time and what about years when tourism demand is low? Preserving cultural heritages and therefore sustainable practices might be the answer if indigenous communities are presented with such challenges. Tourism cannot and will not be the answer to all economic uncertainties.
Antarctic: Over the last three decades a growing number of non-governmental expeditions have visited the Antarctic and a number of tourist activities have followed suite. Enzenbacher (1992) estimates as many as 39,000 tourists have visited since 1957 and that the Antarctic tourism is experiencing a substantial period of growth.
Stonehouse (1992) estimated that more than 37,000 people have visited since 1966 on tour ships alone. Enzenbacher (1992) however, suggested that the total number of visitors is difficult to determine with certainty in the Antarctic, since many visits may never have been reported. Enzenbacher (1994) later reported a record number of tourists visited the Antarctic during the 1992/93 season (see figure 3), not only aboard ships but also aboard yachts and aircraft.
Figure 3: Recorded number of tourists in the Antarctic from 1980/81 to 1992/93
(From Enzenbacher, 1994)
Future levels of Antarctic tourism may therefore prove difficult to predict. Firstly because many tourists are visiting more landing sites than ever before and secondly because new operators often with small ships and offering reduced fairs are rapidly expanding within the area.
Whilst such growing numbers may have a positive effect, in that it promotes increased knowledge of the general public about the continent, the increased tourist activity, especially if unregulated, could lead to cumulative environmental impacts on the most frequently visited locations. Researchers are therefore asking themselves the question whether the continents environment can sufficiently cope with not only future activity but also existing tourism numbers (Enzenbacher, 1992).
Life in Antarctica already contends with one of the harshest environments on earth and there is concern that the human presence may add additional stress. Animals may be disturbed or frightened from their breeding areas and delicate slow growing mosses and other vegetation, not used to the pressure that is exerted upon them may be squashed underfoot, especially after hundreds of people go to the same sites day after day, year after year. Indeed, some of these locations have already begun to show the harmful effects of activities related to tourism. For example, according to Swithinbank (1992) high-flying sight seeing flights do not affect wildlife, but low flying aircraft do represent a hazard. Breeding colonies of Adelie penguins have been known to abandon their nests as helicopters approach.
Most concur there needs to be a growing awareness of environmental issues arising from tourism in Antarctica and that there is potential for undesirable impacts such as trampling of vegetation and disturbance at wildlife breeding sites (Enzenbacher, 1994; Stonehouse, 1992; Swithinbank, 1993) but it remains that there is little evidence to suggest either. For example, Stonehouse (1992) suggested there is little quantitative information on the impacts of the industry on the environment, whilst Enzenbacher (1992) felt no comprehensive tourism impact assessment has been undertaken in Antarctica which enables policy makers to identify specific problems requiring further attention. Stonehouse (1992) did however accept that the potential for harm by ill disciplined groups is great and possible long-term effects on ecosystems must be taken into account when assessing total impact.
Despite this lack of evidence restrictions have still been imposed on tourism in some regions by the creation of scientific reserves which in effect prohibit tourists from certain areas of Antarctica (Stonehouse, 1992).
Another concern is the risk that scientific research efforts can be stressed when cruise ships call at research stations. Indeed tourists now outnumber national scientific and logistic personnel (estimated at 4000) by a significant margin (Enzenbacher, 1992). These numbers could disrupt station life and research work, work that scientists are doing that is important for our global future, present and past. It is important that research taking place on Antarctica therefore not be interrupted. Stonehouse (1992) however suggested scientific activities could benefit from tourism since the industry not only provides a connection with the outside world but can also act to strengthen political support for Antarctic science. Many scientists agree and think tourists should visit, providing they’re coming for the right reasons.
A more recent concern has been the preservation of some of Antarctica’s historic sites such as the Scott and Shackleton huts in the Ross Dependency. Despite the obvious climatic hazards faced in reaching these sites large numbers of tourists (several thousand in the last five years) have now visited the huts (Hughes, 1991). Conservation is of obvious importance, not only to the Antarctic but to polar history as a whole; therefore the question of conservation is the underlying factor in terms of tourist visits. Hughes (1991) reports all the same, of no tourist visits having adverse impacts and that this should continue in the interest of visitors assuming it is conducted on a controlled scale.
The issue of tourism in Antarctica became a topic of debate in 1989 when the Argentinean vessel, Bahia Paraiso, carrying 80 tourists grounded in Antarctic waters and subsequently sank. What followed was a vast oil slick which killed thousands of krill, a major food source for fish, birds and whales (American University, Washington D.C. 2002). Scientific experiments were also disrupted and the ramifications may still be being felt today. The event highlighted the great dangers of travel in polar waters. Future accidents are a threat not only in Antarctic waters but also in the Arctic since many tour ships are not ice-strengthened and therefore not designed to sail in polar conditions. Britain is currently leading an effort to introduce a new "Antarctic Code" for shipping in the Southern Ocean due to the increasing number of ships sailing around Antarctica, its aim to reduce the likelihood of a potentially devastating accident (BBC News, 2002).
Having looked at a number of examples of the costs and benefits of tourism in Polar Regions it is clear there are both positive and negative success stories. In order for tourism to remain sustainable in each region a different consensus need to be drawn up between the tourism industries and management in each hemisphere since each faces different obstacles. Environmental controls need to be put on visits to Antarctica and a more precautionary approach needs to be adopted in terms of environmental protection. Similar controls with varying degrees of management need to be applied in the Arctic but it appears more emphasis should be put into protecting indigenous populations, making sure these communities are not over-exploited. Tourism can be successful polar regions but only if research, monitoring and consensus are practiced in order to continue improving our understanding and, if necessary to further refine these working rules.
References
American University, Washington D.C. 2002. Antarctica Tourism.
Accessed 17 March 2002
BBC News. 2002. Concern over Antarctic cruise ships.
Accessed 18 March 2002.
Cheng, J. R. 1980. Tourism: how much is too much? Lessons for Canmore from Banff. Canadian Geographer. 24: 72-80.
Detroit Virtual Zoo. 2002. Inuit.
Accessed 18 March 2002.
Enzenbacher, D. J. 1992. Tourists in Antarctica: numbers and trends. Polar Record. 28(164): 17-22.
Enzenbacher, D. J. 1994. Antarctic tourism: an overview of 1992/93 season activity, recent developments and emerging issues. Polar Record. 30(173): 105-116.
Hamley, W. 1991. Tourism in the Northwest Territories. Geographical Review. 81: 389-99.
Hughes, J. D. 1992b. Mawson’s Antarctic huts and tourism: a case for on-site preservation. Polar Record. 28(164): 37-42.
Milne, S., Ward, S., and Wenzel, G. 1995. Linking tourism and art in Canada’s Eastern Arctic: the case of Cape Dorset. Polar Record. 176:25-36.
Stonehouse, B. 1992. Monitoring shipborne visitors in Antarctica: a preliminary field study. Polar Record. 28(166): 213-218.
Swithinbank, C. 1993. Airborne tourism in the Antarctic. Polar Record. 29(169): 103-110.
