Petroleum engineers are responsible for the development of discovered oil accumulations. They usually specialize in one of the important categories of production operation: drilling and surface facilities, petrophysical and geological analysis of the reservoir, reserve estimation and specification of optimal development practices, or production control and surveillance. Again, although many of these specialists have formal training as petroleum engineers, many others are drawn from the ranks of chemical, mechanical, electrical, and civil engineers; physicists, chemists, and mathematicians; and geologists.
The drilling engineer specifies and supervises the actual program by which a well will be bored into the earth, the kind of drilling mud to be used, the way in which the steel casing that isolates the productive strata from all other subsurface strata will be cemented, and how the productive strata will be exposed to the well bore. The facilities-engineering specialists specify and design the surface equipment that must be installed to support the production operation, the well-head pumps, the field measurement and collection of produced fluids and gas separation systems, the storage tankage, the dehydration system for removing water from the produced oil, and the facilities for enhanced recovery programs.
The petrophysical and geological engineer, after interpreting the data supplied by analysis of cores and by various logging devices, develops a description of the reservoir rock and its permeability, porosity, and continuity. The reservoir engineer then develops the plan for the number and location of the wells to be drilled into the reservoir, the rates of production that can be sustained for optimum recovery, and the need for supplementary recovery technology. The reservoir engineer also estimates the productivity and ultimate recovery (reserves) that can be achieved from the reservoir, in terms of time, operating costs, and value of the crude oil produced.
Finally, the production engineer monitors the performance of the wells. The engineer recommends and implements remedial tasks such as fracturing, acidizing, deepening, adjusting gas to oil and water to oil ratios, and any other measures that will improve the economic performance of the reservoir.
Type of people
They are all kind of people working in BP, as there are lots of works to do. Each person needs a different qualification for different work, but most of them need science as most of the work is involved with science, for example making manufacture petrol.
Number of People
There are about 200 people working in BP, but are divided in different sections. There is about 20 people each section, and there are 10 sections.
Environmental Impact
When petroleum products such as gasoline (used in automobiles), diesel fuel (used in trucks), and heating oil (used to heat our homes) are burned as fuel, they give off carbon dioxide. Drilling for oil also has an impact on the environment--companies must use advanced technology and comply with government rules and regulations for safe drilling and petroleum production.
Economic cost
Anybody can go down to the local service station and purchase gasoline for approximately $0.55-0.60 per litre.
Economic benefit
The economics of replacing petroleum-based products with grain-based products are increasingly favourable and cost-competitive. Manufacturers can save through dramatic reductions in standard and hazardous waste disposal costs. Replacing petroleum-based products can avoid costly permits and compliance penalties.
The private sector benefits from grain-based products in several ways. Grain-based chemicals provide an environmental compliance tool for manufacturers and end-users. These substitutions can be a permanent solution to regulatory problems by replacing chemicals listed on the Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory.
The use of plant matter in products stimulates rural economic development. Because plant matter is a bulky material, agricultural crops and residues are most efficiently converted into higher value end-products by nearby processing and manufacturing facilities. This provides greater income and opportunities for farmers and rural communities.
Petrol
Petroleum, or crude oil, naturally occurring oily, bituminous liquid composed of various organic chemicals. It is found in large quantities below the surface of the earth and is used as a fuel and as a raw material in the chemical industry. Modern industrial societies use it primarily to achieve a degree of mobility—on land, at sea, and in the air—that was barely imaginable less than a hundred years ago. In addition, petroleum and its derivatives are used in the manufacture of medicines and fertilizers, foodstuffs, plastic ware, building materials, paints, and cloth and to generate electricity.
FORMATION
Petroleum is formed under the earth’s surface by the decomposition of marine organisms. The remains of tiny organisms that live in the sea—and, to a lesser extent, those of land organisms that are carried down to the sea in rivers and of plants that grow on the ocean bottoms—are enmeshed with the fine sands and silts that settle to the bottom in quiet sea basins. Such deposits, which are rich in organic materials, become the source rocks for the generation of crude oil. The process began many millions of years ago with the development of abundant life, and it continues to this day. The sediments grow thicker and sink into the seafloor under their own weight. As additional deposits pile up, the pressure on the ones below increases several thousand times, and the temperature rises by several hundred degrees. The mud and sand harden into shale and sandstone; carbonate precipitates and skeletal shells harden into limestone; and the remains of the dead organisms are transformed into crude oil and natural gas.
Once the petroleum forms, it flows upward in the earth’s crust because it has a lower density than the brines that saturate the interstices of the shales, sands, and carbonate rocks that constitute the crust of the earth. The crude oil and natural gas rise into the microscopic pores of the coarser sediments lying above. Frequently, the rising material encounters an impermeable shale or dense layer of rock that prevents further migration; the oil has become trapped, and a reservoir of petroleum is formed. A significant amount of the upward-migrating oil, however, does not encounter impermeable rock but instead flows out at the surface of the earth or onto the ocean floor. Surface deposits also include bituminous lakes and escaping natural gas.
Medical Centre
Type of Work
The type of work in medical centre is mainly to treat people by giving them medicines. For more information about medicine see page
To produce medicine they will have to do research and also trials. They will also to consider the research cost.
Medicine research
Medical research often combines medicine with related fields of biology, and is called biomedical research. Research can be basic or applied. Basic, or fundamental, research has no immediate practical application. Basic cancer research, for instance, may try to identify gene mutations that turn a healthy cell malignant. While this information does not have immediate clinical value, it generates knowledge that often leads to better care for patients. Applied research has a specific practical goal, such as development of a better drug for breast cancer. The early stages of biomedical research usually occur in a laboratory. As scientists gain more knowledge in a particular area, they begin studies on humans. These studies often take place in hospitals or clinics and are called clinical research.
Clinical research usually is performed by multidisciplinary teams, rather than by individual scientists working alone. These groups of men and women have knowledge and skills in different areas, or disciplines, of science. A multidisciplinary biomedical research team may include biochemists, geneticists, physiologists, and physicians. Each team member approaches the problem from a different side and shares knowledge with the group. This multidisciplinary approach increases the chances of solving a problem or developing a new treatment.
Clinical Trials
One of the greatest advances in medicine was the introduction of a new research technique in the mid-1950s called the controlled clinical trial, which is used to determine if new drugs and other treatments are safe and effective. In the controlled clinical trial, one group of patients, the treatment group, receives the new drug or new treatment. Another group, the control group, is given an inactive pill (a placebo) or the best standard treatment. Researchers then compare the two groups over a period of time. The data collected is put through rigorous statistical techniques to determine whether the new treatment is safer and more effective than standard therapy or no treatment.
Most clinical trials are conducted on a blind or double-blind basis. In a blind trial, patients do not know whether they receive the new drug or a placebo. In a double-blind trial, neither patients nor physicians know who is receiving the new treatment. This secrecy is important because patients who know they are taking a powerful new drug may expect to feel better and report improvement to doctors. Researchers who know that a patient is receiving the test treatment may also see improvements that really do not exist.
Clinical trials usually are randomized. Researchers put patients into the treatment group or control group at random. This helps to assure that neither group contains an excess of patients with severe disease. A drug may appear more effective if the treatment group were packed with patients who had only mild symptoms.
The results of clinical trials are subjected to peer review. Researchers publish their results in scientific journals or present them to an audience of other scientists, who are their peers. This gives scientists not involved in the research a chance to spot potential errors.
Research Costs
Research is expensive. During the late 1990s the NIH often spent more than $130,000 per year to fund an average research project. Drug manufacturers estimate that they spend an average of $359 million to develop one new drug.
The availability of funding often determines what medical research is conducted. Voluntary health organizations and other groups act as advocates in urging or lobbying the government to spend more on their own particular disease. Governments in developed countries usually spend most heavily on diseases that affect their own citizens, and these diseases are typically different than those commonly found in developing countries. Pharmaceutical companies also emphasize development of the most profitable new drugs, usually for diseases that occur in developed countries.
As a result, little research is done on diseases that kill millions of people in developing nations. In 1998, for instance, the NIH planned to spend only $116 million on malaria and other tropical diseases. While rare in industrialized nations with developed health care programs, malaria kills 1.5 million to 2.7 million people in developing countries each year.
Type of People
There are mainly doctors and nurses working in the medical centre. The doctors and nurses need science especially biology.
There are also the cleaners that need very little qualification, because they only clean the place and ensure that no loose object is in danger of harming people.
Number of people
They are about 6 people including the cleaners, 2 doctors, 3 nurses and 1 cleaner.
Area of the science in the organization
Medical science relating to diseases, prevention and cures
Qualifications, roles and responsibilities
Each Doctor could have a number of different qualifications, depending on his course of studies as a student and specialist interest relating to medical condition. Doctors have to belong to the British Medical Association (BMA) who issues a GP with license to practice medicine provided he has qualified.
Research, Safety and Education
Doctors, Practice Nurse and Practice Manager at this practice belong to WellRen, which is a research-based organization. Keeping general practice up to date with research studies which they can also link into and become actively involved by undertaking to research a particular subject feeding back to other members.
New medicine trials are also carried out by GPs in general practice. Relevant patients are recruited (patient must agree to take part, and be given full information regarding the research) The patient are monitored and information fed back to the Safety in Medicine Drugs Research Team. After which the drug may be released for use in general medicine, depending outcome of research data.
Regular practice based audits are carried out to monitor performance of the practice in relating to demand also patient compliance to treatments. Risk assessments are carried out regularly with regard to health and safety of staff and patients. Reports kept and findings acted on.
All staff at this practice attends regular training sessions at a Primary Care Access Training Centre which belongs to the Health Authority. Ealing borough is the first Hearth Authority to have such a training venue.
Processes used by the organisation that are based on applying current scientific knowledge
Doctors, Nurse and Manager will be kept up to date with current changes within the medical field in the form of Medical Journals such as GP, Pulse, Nurse Practitioner and Med Economics also by attending regular education seminars relating to medical issue. Where appropriate new treatments will be applied for use in General Practice.
Constraints: Legal and Health and Safety
Constraints such as GPs working as sub-contractors to the Health Authority mean that they work within guidelines laid down by the Health Authority involving the health care of patients.
The government sets guidelines and targets by which the Health Authority has to implement by devolving information and direction down to General Practitioners and their staff.
Targets of performance are set. No scientific research can be carried out on patient in general practice without the Government and Health Authorities direction and participating patient consent.
Health and safety policies have to been in place and regularly updated regarding disposal of clinical waste materials, unused medical, sharps (blade and needles)
Etc.
Comment:
General Practice although a science as regards medicines, cures and treatment, it would not necessitate the doctors having scientific qualification. Their qualification would relate to the treatment of people and not to the science of medicine as such.
Scientific medicine would relate to Medicine scientist rather than General Practitioners, although, as I have mentioned previously, medical trail do take place within general practice as directed by the Government Scientist.
Medicine
Medicine, the science and art of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and injury. Its goals are to help people live longer, happier, more active lives with less suffering and disability. Medicine goes beyond the bedside of patients. Medical scientists engage in a constant search for new drugs, effective treatments, and more advanced technology. In addition, medicine is a business. It is part of the health care industry, one of the largest industries in the United States, and among the leading employers in most communities.
Research is one of the most important fields of medicine. It provides health care professionals with new knowledge and technology for better diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.
