Infants also begin to learn and develop language, it is likely that the ability to use language is genetically programmed in the same way as our ability to stand and walk. The ability to use language develops because of maturation; although they do need to experience other people using language in order to learn, but do not need to be trained in order to speak. Infants around the age of 3 months begin to make babbling noises as they learn to control the muscles associated with speech. Then around the age of 12 months infants begin to imitate sounds made by carers such as ‘da-da’; and this develops into the use of single words. And then around the age of 2 infants begin to make two word statements and begin to build their vocabulary and develop an understanding and knowledge of words. Then finally at the age of around 3, towards the final stages of infancy they start to make simple sentences and then this develops into the ability to ask questions and their knowledge of words continues to grow very rapidly.
Childhood- Children grow steadily at this time but less rapidly than during infancy. By the age of 6, a child’s head will be 90 per cent of adult size, even though the body still has alot of growing to do. The reproductive organs remain small until the onset of puberty. Children’s practical abilities continue to develop; they start to improve their co-ordination and control. By the age of 4, children may be able to kick and throw a large ball. By age 6 or 7, a child may be able to skip and to ride a bicycle.
We do not simply learn more as we grow older; we also develop more useful ways of thinking. Between the ages of 2-7 is known as the pre-operational stage, which means thinking in language but without understanding logic. Piaget (1896 –1980), who was a developmental psychologist who had a theory of cognitive development believed that children could not think in a logical way. That a child could use words to communicate but that they do not understand the logical implications involved in language. Piaget explained that pre-operational children cannot properly understand how ideas like number, mass and volume really work. A child might be able to count to 10 but might not understand what the number 10 really means. But in later stages of childhood, children do however start to see things from other people’s point of view and begin to work things out, but need to see and touch things to understand and solve problems. At the end of this stage children do begin to develop an understanding of concepts; concepts including colours, numbers, size and symbols. And they also begin to learn the differences between right and wrong.
As children get older they become better at controlling the way they respond to their emotions and learn that they should express their emotions differently in different situations. They also begin to understand the social roles that other people play, but still are very dependant on their parents/carers and close family members. How they are treated by them is still very important for their self-concept, but as children grow older they meet more people outside of the family and their self-concept can also be affected by the relationships they have with others such as school friends and teachers. If a child has many friends and good relationships with others the child may develop a permanent sense of confidence, however if they are unpopular or even bullied this could have a negative effect and possibly cause a sense of failure and inferiority. Therefore positive emotional relationships with others are fundamental in a child’s development.
Some children develop speech much more rapidly than others. Just because language development involves a maturation process, it does not mean that every child will develop at the same rate. Around the age of 4 children begin to use clear sentences that can be understood by strangers, but children can be expected to make some mistakes with grammar e.g. ‘We met lots of peoples at the shops today’. From the age of 5 onwards children can speak using full adult grammar. Although vocabulary will continue to grow, and formal grammar will continue to improve, most children can be expected to use language effectively by age 5.
Children become increasingly independent as they grow older and begin to form friendships based on a sense of mutual trust. Friendships become increasingly important as a child grows towards adolescence. Children now have a much better understanding of the feelings of others and co-operate with other children in games and develop an understanding of rules and fairness. Now that they understand how others are feeling it becomes more important for them to have the approval from other children and by the age of 7 children become more aware of sexual differences and prefer to play with children of the same sex, this will continue until adolescence.
Adolescence- Adolescence is a general stage of lifespan development that includes puberty. Puberty is a development stage which prepares the body for sexual reproduction. Puberty in girls often starts between the ages of 11 and 13, although it may begin earlier in some girls. Girls generally start puberty before 13 but boys generally start puberty later, often between 13 and15 years of age. It is triggered by the action of hormones that control sexual development. Both boys and girls may experience a ‘growth spurt’, where they grow taller at a faster rate than before. Girls’ sexual development during puberty includes the enlargement of breasts, the development of pubic hair, increased fat layers under the skin and the start of menstrual periods. Boys will experience the enlargement of their testes and penis, the development of pubic and facial hair and increased muscle strength. Boys’ voice boxes also grow causing their voice to ‘break’ and become deeper in tone. These major changes mean that adolescents look and behave very differently from children.
The formal operational stage from 11+ years is thinking using logic and abstract thought processes (adult thinking). With formal logical reasoning, an adolescent/adult can solve complex problems in their head, learn to think in different ways and understand more difficult concepts than children. Formal logical operations enable adolescents and adults to use abstract concepts and theories in order to be able to gain an understanding of the world beyond their own experiences. Abstract thinking enables people to think through complicated ideas in their head without having to see the concrete pictures.
During adolescence hormones can make emotional changes and insecurity can be a big part of an adolescent’s emotional development. Adolescents look to discover a sense of personal identity, or to discover 'who they are’. An adolescent needs to develop a secure sense of identity; they need a clear understanding of identity in order to feel secure when working with other people. And their permanent sense of confidence continues to develop, however they may have a sense of failure and inferiority if they 'don’t fit in’.
A person’s sense of self-worth may be influenced more by other adolescents than by their family during this life stage. Adolescents will copy the styles of dress, beliefs, cultural values and behaviours of their own network of friends in order to fit in with the group and gain approval. Adolescents also have to cope with the development of their own sexuality (the impact of sex hormones at puberty) and the social transition to full independence from the family.
Adulthood- Adults are fully mature at this stage and there is now very little growth. Young adults are often at the peak of their physical performance between the ages of 18 and 28. Older adults generally tend to lose some strength and speed with age, although exercise can help develop physical fitness and athletic skills. There are a number of age-related changes that slowly become apparent as we grow older. During their forties, many people find that they may need to wear reading glasses. Some people cannot hear high-pitched sounds so well during late adulthood and many adults show a thinning of hair, with hair loss being common in men. And in woman a physical development called menopause occurs towards the end of this life stage. Menopause is a term used to describe the permanent cessation of the primary functions of a woman’s reproductive system, and signals the end of the fertile phase of a woman's life.
Intellectual development continues even throughout adulthood. Getting a job involves learning new skills, and if a person wants to progress in a certain career, these skills have to be developed and extended. Many skills are also needed when a person leaves home and lives independently. These include cooking, managing a home and a budget and for some people raising children. As adults age they react more slowly and find it more difficult to remember things under pressure. However to balance this they are better at problem solving and making decisions due to their previous life experiences.
When people leave home they have to be independent and self reliant to cope. During adulthood, adults usually have developed a network of personal friends and establish sexual relationships and partnerships. Living with a partner takes a high level of emotional maturity, and people have to understand their own emotions and those of their partner, and also be able to control the way in which they respond to their emotions, in order to maintain the relationship and work through any problems. Having children can mean accepting new responsibilities. Babies are very demanding & this can cause a lot of stress, even on a relationship, therefore adults have to be emotionally mature to cope with this.
During early adulthood, it is important to find employment or establish a career. Friendship networks also continue to be very important along with new types of relationships. Their relationships with parents change, young adults start to relate to their parents more as equals and parents realise that their offspring now take responsibility for themselves. Some adults may have a partner or get married and have children; this means making decisions, accepting responsibility and sharing. For many people marriage and parenthood represent major social developments in their life.
Older adulthood- Physical declines in old age are inevitable; however, there is a lot of individual variation. Some older adults are extremely healthy while others face debilitating illnesses like cancer, Parkinson's disease, or Alzheimer's disease. There are also many environmental factors that contribute to one's health in later life. Some of the physical changes that occur as people age is that; the skin wrinkles because of the loss of elasticity, hair thins and goes grey and men often experience hair loss, bones become more fragile as thinning makes them lighter and more brittle, especially in women and mobility may be affected as joints stiffen and the body’s organs become less efficient, including the heart, lungs, kidney & liver.
In most people in this stage there is little or no intellectual development. Instead there is a loss of thinking, problem solving, language skills and memory. Thinking becomes less flexible. This means that people in later adulthood find it hard to adapt to new situations and ideas. People in this stage can be slow in thought, lose a train of thought, or forget words and names. There is some loss of short-term and long-term memory. People with very severe memory loss tend to remember only things from many years before. This sort of memory loss happens to people with Alzheimer’s disease. However, in the early years of this stage, following retirement (i.e. stopping work, usually because of age) some people do continue to learn and take up new interests. Activities that require problem solving, such as crossword puzzles and board games, can reduce or delay intellectual decline. Even better is the opportunity to continue working. People who do this are able to use the wisdom they have built up throughout adulthood.
During this life stage retirement can result in a person feeling less valued than before and wondering what purpose their life can now serve. For some people, the job they do is an important part of their self-concept, so retirement will be a loss. This might also bring reduced self-esteem. During this stage, the decline in abilities can also result in a loss of confidence, especially if people have difficulty in caring for themselves. For some people in older adulthood, there is continued companionship in a long-term partnership and continued enjoyment of a sexual relationship. However, the death of a partner is also very likely during this stage, and this bereavement can be very upsetting. After the end of a long-term relationship the person might not be able to form another partnership and therefore may feel isolated and lonely.
In this life stage, it is common for a person’s social circle to get smaller. For example, retirement means less contact with workmates. Later in this stage, social contacts might be reduced by the death of friends or a partner. Reduced mobility and increased weakness often mean that the person leaves their home less often; this can lead to social isolation. This in turn leads to a loss of social skills, which can make social contacts less satisfactory and friendships harder to make. Services such as day centres can help to reduce isolation and help people form new friendships.
The final stages of life- The longest any human being has been verified to have lived is just over 122 years. In round figures 120 years is often accepted as the maximum lifespan for a human being. A range of processes may limit our lifespan. It seems that our body cells have a limited ability to renew themselves. If cells cannot renew themselves, then we cannot repair ourselves and stay healthy. At this stage people think about death and dying in different ways. Some individuals are scared of death and try not to think about it at all, and others have strong religious beliefs which tell them not to worry about it and some individuals may get upset emotionally because they are scared of dying and leaving their loved ones and letting them go through the grief of the fact that they are going to die. Some older people may prepare for their death by achieving things in their lives that they have wanted to do all their life. Individuals who are facing death may want their family and friends around for comfort. To increase your potential lifespan you should avoid exposure to toxic substances such as tobacco smoke. Nicotine from tobacco smoke may directly damage cell DNA. Eat a healthy diet with a good balance of fruit and vegetables and fibre. A balanced diet may help to limit the impact of toxic substances that may damage body cells. You should also take regular exercise. Research suggests that people who exercise regularly have a lower risk of degenerative diseases such as heart disease. However so far scientific research has not yet provided a single simple definitive explanation of why there is a maximum lifespan.
