An individuals unrealistic optimism is their inaccurate perception of risk and susceptibility. The theory created by Weinstein in 1983 states that one reason why people continue to practice unhealthy behaviours is because they don’t see their own level of risk. They don’t believe it will ever actually happen to them. For example an individual may carry out unsafe sex because she doesn’t see herself getting pregnant or catching any STD’s even though she is aware that it is common. She estimates her own level of risk being lower than others. Weinstein also claimed that people show selective focus. For example they ignore the fact the are injecting drugs but focuses on the fact that they don't share needles. Individuals also tend to ignore the healthy behaviours of others. An individual can therefore be classed as unrealistically optimistic if they focus on the times they do practice safe sex instead of the times they don't. They focus on the times that their friends do not practice safe sex and ignore the times they do.
- Evaluate what psychologists have found out about lifestyles and health behaviour.
The Health belief model has been supported by several follow up studies. These studies show that protected sex, regular exercise and a healthy diet is due to an individuals perception of susceptibility to the related health problem, catching an STD or becoming obese, to their belief that the problem is serious and their view that the advantages of carrying out the healthy behaviour outweigh the advantages of not carrying it out. In contrast to these studies, several others have resulted in conflicting findings. The studies found that behaviour intentions are related to low perceived seriousness as opposed to high, the studies suggested an association between low susceptibility (not high) and healthy behaviour. The HBM also carries other weaknesses, including its emphasis on the individual, neglect of social and environmental factors, neglect of emotional factors such as fear and denial and its focus on rational processing of information, for example do we really weigh up the pros and cons before eating an apple? Schwarzer further criticised the model in 1992. He said that within the model beliefs are described as occurring concurrently with no room for progress or change. In addition Leventhal argued that health related behaviour is due to the view of symptoms rather than to the individual factors as suggested by the model.
Elements of the model may predict screening for hypertension, screening for cervical cancer, genetic screening, regular vigorous exercise , moderate alcohol use, improvement in diets or smoking cessation.
Support for the theory of planned behaviour has been found by Brubaker and Wickersham in 1990 they tested the role of the theory's different sections in predicting testicular self-examination and suggested that views of the behavior, subjective norm and behavioral control were associated with the intent on performing the behavior. Schifter and Ajzen, 1985, constructed a study that showed that weight loss was predicted by the components of the model; in particular, goal attainment was related to behavioral control. In contrast there are few criticisms of the TPB. Schwarzer in 1992 argued that Ajzen does not describe either the order of the different beliefs or says what causes what (causality). But he also states that the model, in contrast to the health belief model, has a degree of irrationality, considers social and environmental factors and also considers past behaviors within the measure of perceived behavioral control.
The idea of locus of control has been applied to many hospitals and medical health settings. It proves useful in disorders including diabetes and kidney disease, which requires long term treatments and strict adherence to diet. The control felt by patients over their illness has an effect on their health in general, this has proved self-evident. Even with a long-term illness like diabetes the individual has most control, as she or he must maintain a healthy and strict diet. They must always take their medication and monitor their sugar levels. However, the mystifying element of many studies is how a diabetic with an internal locus of control does not always have better health. There are a few other points that question the health locus of control;
- Is it possible for somebody to have am internal and external locus of control?
- Is it possible for somebody to change from internal to external? Is it a state or a trait?
- Does someone who visits a doctor always have an external locus of control?
Following the unrealistic optimism theory of 1983 there was a follow up study in 1996 carried out by Hoppe and Ogden. Heterosexual subjects filled in a questionnaire concerning their views on HIV and their sexual behavior. They were given one of two conditions, risk increasing condition and risk decreasing condition. In the risk-increasing condition they were asked, "since being sexually active, how often have you asked about your partners HIV status?" results were to prove that very few subjects would be able to claim that they had done this regularly and so would feel more risk. In the risk decreasing condition subjects were asked, "since being sexually active, how often have you tried to select your partners carefully?" It was thought that most people would answer this claiming that they did - making them feel less at risk. It was then found that those who focused on risk decreasing tended to increase their optimism because they thought others were more at risk. Mahatane & Johnston (1989) focused on attitudes in relation to unrealistic optimism about becoming mentally ill. The results seemed to suggest that negative attitudes towards the mentally ill were related to people’s unrealistically optimistic estimation of their own chances of becoming mentally ill. These studies backs up Weinsteins unrealistic optimism theory, he also created components which contribute to the theory. He argues that unrealistic optimism is cause by the lack of personal experience with the problem, belief that it is preventable by an individual action, belief that if the problem has not yet occurred it probably won't at any point in the future and lastly there is a belief that the problem is infrequent. There aren't any strong criticisms against the study but it does help us understand why people smoke. They don't see themselves getting cancer. People drink excessive alcohol and they bet but they can't see themselves getting addicted.
- Using psychological research to support your suggestion, describe one feature of a programme designed to encourage women to carry out breast self examination.
The focus of bad behaviour usually related to giving up bad habits such as smoking, excessive drinking or a bad diet. But it is also essential that we generate new habits and carry out preventive actions. Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in the UK. One in nine women will develop breast cancer at some point during their lifetime. For this reason it is quite important that women know how, when and why to carry out breast self examination.