Talcott Parsons argued that the family had two basic functions; the ‘basic and irreducible functions’. These were; primary socialisation of children and the stable adult personalities (especially the male.)
There are however some criticisms of the functionalist approach to society, for instance, structuralists like to assume that societies exist without any form of conflict which is not an accurate view based on modern society today, we know this as the law keeps changing due to deviant members of society and also there are now clear winners and clear losers within our society today. Functionalists present a picture of society through ‘rose tinted spectacles’ as they see every individual as having value consensus; which means people are all in agreement and understand the values and beliefs of society in which they live. This approach also assumes that how an individual behaves is a direct result of the socialisation process and that very little of a persons behaviour is the result of personal choice. Finally, functionalists try and present a picture of a socialisation process between individuals within society which does not fail. “There is no clear explanation of the prevalence of deviant behaviour and especially the extreme forms of deviance found in crime, delinquency and abuse which are destabilising for society of a whole.” Stretch. Beryl. (2007). BTEC National Health and social care book 1.page 344
Marxism
The next sociological perspective which I am going to describe is Marxism. Marxism is both a structuralist model and a conflict model developed by Karl Marx. This approach believes that an individual’s behaviour is influenced by society. Marx used the economic system as an example as it has clearly outlined the statuses in which people have within society. Marxism stands by the fact that the institutions of society are organised specifically to meet the interests and needs of the ruling classes (those that have wealth and power).
Marx believed that within society there are two social classes; the Bourgeoisie/capitalists or the proletariat. These two classes are very different from one another as the Bourgeoisies, sometimes called the capitalists are the small powerful group within society who own factories and other big places of employment, whereas the proletariat are a much larger class, but are however much poorer than the capitalists as these individuals are employed by the Bourgeoisie and are therefore on a much smaller wage. Karl Marx believed that these two social groups would always be in conflict with one another, and this was why it was also named the conflict model. The reason Marx thought this was because the proletariat were employed by the Bourgeoisie and the Bourgeoisie would want high profits as they own factories and land, but the proletariat’s would want a higher wage and this would have to come out of the profit in which the Bourgeoisie made and they therefore did not like it. Marx believed that the Bourgeoisie ‘exploited’ the proletariat, but he did however also believe that in time the proletariats would revolt against the Bourgeoisie and overturn them. Marxists also believed that the Bourgeoisies not only ruled the economic system but they held power in the other institutions of society like the education system, the legal system and the mass media.
Marx explained that the proletariats experienced something called ‘false consciousness’ as he said that they did not realise they were been exploited by the Bourgeoisie. He explained that they served the interests of the Bourgeoisie rather than the interests of their own class. False consciousness is the explanation as to why the conflicting interests of the two social groups do not erupt into actual conflict or revolution. Marx believed that the working class had a false consciousness that meant that they took on the views and beliefs of the capitalist without realising it and that by working hard they were lining the pockets of the bourgeoisie and therefore serving the interests of the people who ruled society. This is a form of social stratification (social diversity) as the Bourgeoisie have been placed at the top of the hierarchy like that of the Brahmans on the Hindu Caste system and the proletariat have been placed below and seen as ‘serving’ the upper class (in this context the Bourgeoisie.) Marxists have a structuralist perspective on society like the functionalists do as they see the family as contributing to a stable social system but would regard the family as the servant of the capitalist system. The education system is a really good example showing how much power the Bourgeoisie had over the proletariat because universities such as Cambridge and oxford are much more likely to accept individuals from the Bourgeoisies than from the working class; proletariats. Both the Marxists and functionalists believe that it provides the context for the socialisation of children, preparing them for the disciplines and routines of work in which they would face in the future.
Like the functionalists, Marxists also have several criticisms as they also believe like the functionalists do that the behaviour of an individual is the direct result of the socialisation process as oppose to personal choice. However, it is the socialisation process which meets the values and interests of that of the ruling classes like the Bourgeoisie who I have previously mentioned in this assignment. This model has also been criticised of putting too much emphasis on different class interests and potential conflicts of interests between classes. The standard of living in modern day societies has changed over the past years and employers and employees now share certain interests improving the quality of day to day work. “All will potentially benefit from a successful company.” Taken from PowerPoint One of the main criticisms of this model in particular is that it does not give enough emphasis on other social institutions within society which influences our behaviour, for example; religion, race and family life etc.
Feminism
I am now going to consider feminism another sociological perspective. Feminism is also classed as been a conflict model, as women are seen as exploited by men. This model explains that feminists believe that society favours men over women in important areas of social life like employment for example. “Feminism is an intellectual, philosophical and political aimed at equal rights and legal protection for women. It involves various movements, , and , all concerned with issues of ; that advocate for women and that campaign for and interests.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist
There are several debates as to why society is dominated by men so much and feminists argue that it is because over the years men have neglected the issues of women and their unequal status within society. Everything in society that has power was developed by men, and decisions made within society were made regardless of women. This is known as ‘male-stream’ sociology; “male dominance forming biased descriptions and analysis not paying attention to women’s place in society.” Taken from PowerPoint. There are three main approaches associated with feminism; I am going to describe each approach below;
Marxist Feminism
Marxists feminists believe that women are forced to do anything that is asked of them as they are being ‘oppressed’ by men in society as they are the ‘dominators’ within the social institutions. They believe women’s rights are taken away from them because men believe that they have so much power and dominance over them.
Marxists feminists see women as producing the next generation of workers as they say that women have the role and responsibility of bringing up their children and cooking and cleaning in order to look after their family, they also have the responsibility of providing support for their husband/partner which can be seen as been dominated by them once again. They believe that the family would not be able to work if somebody did not do domestic work like this and men believe that this should be the role of the women.
Radical feminism
Radical feminism is another feminist approach; however they have very strong views about feminism unlike the Marxists feminists. They similarly see women as being oppressed by men, but not capitalism like the Marxists feminists also believed. Radical feminists view the family as a patriarchal institution, which means they are devoted entirely to the family. This approach says that both the women and girls in the family are given the jobs that the men and boys do not do. In today’s modern society men and women are much more equal as some men now stay at home and contribute with domestic work which they would not have done in the past or look after the children whilst the woman goes out to work, plus women nowadays are becoming much more powerful within companies, e.g. managers, supervisors etc.
Liberal feminism
Finally, the liberal feminists another feminist approach would say that many changes have been made over recent years by new and updated legislation. For instance; the equal pay act (1970) were men and women are now able to earn the same wage when they do the same job, whereas in the past men use to earn more money even though they did the same job as the women. Also, the equal opportunities act (1975) has also been implemented so this means that men and women have the same opportunities when going for a job for instance. Improvements around equal opportunities within society will continue as legislations are amended and implemented, for example, men are now entitled to paternity leave like women are entitled to maternity leave when having a child.
Interactionism
Interactionism is another sociological perspective, but it contrasts completely with the structuralist perspectives which I have discussed previously in this assignment as it focuses on small groups like teenage gangs, travellers etc as oppose to larger groups like what the structuralists focused on to observe how they influence individual behaviour and shape society. They believe that every one is different in their own way and that all individuals will act differently if they are ever put in the same situation. An example of this could be two individuals could visit the doctors with the same symptoms of an illness. One doctor could provide the patient with a sick note explaining that they are too ill to work; whereas the other doctor may say they are fine to work. Every individual interprets things differently and it is these interpretations which shape our behaviour and in effect our society.
Interactionists do not believe that people are totally programmed by the process of socialisation, whereas structuralists do believe strongly that this is most influential. They do believe that we are influenced by socialisation in some way but they believe we have the freewill to choose how we want to behave. There are two different types of socialisation; primary and secondary. Primary socialisation is the early years of our lives which is spent at home with our family, and secondary socialisation carries on throughout our lives through; school, friendship or peers and also through the media and our employment. Interactionists concentrate more on smaller groups in society as oppose to larger social institutions like the economic system. They do not have much of an interest in social structure compared to the other perspectives which I have discussed.
Social action theorists believe that within our family the social roles are not clear because, take for example, in modern society today women and men often have the same roles or they both contribute to help one another but they never use to do this it use to be very clear who did what jobs around the house, e.g. domestic work and who was the bread winner etc. Women nowadays are often the bread winner in the family, whilst the men stay at home and take care of the children. The roles have swapped over the years and have become much more in balance with each other, and it is now classed as fair. Also, social action theorists think that individuals behave to a situation depending on there values and on their links with the rest of society. They believe strongly that women will have her own views on mother hood and they will interpret what is meant by the phrase ‘good mother’, depending on the relationship she has with her family, rather than depending how other people interpret mother hood.
“A social theorist’s main aim in sociology is to understand how people interpret situations and how they act/behave in certain situation and in small face-to-face groups.” Taken from PowerPoint
I am now going to take into account several criticisms of this perspective. Firstly, interactionism does not tell us where social roles come from instead it just focuses on personal choice and this does not show in enough detail why individuals behave in predictable ways. This perspective also pays insufficient attention to the issues of power within society, as it does not take individuals with power into consideration. As the focus with this perspective is much smaller it tends to focus on the interactions between groups rather than wider social issues which may have also influenced the situation in some way or another.
Postmodernism
Next, I am going to look at another sociological perspective called postmodernism which focuses on the rapid change and uncertainty within our modern society. This approach explains that our society is constantly changing and individuals can no longer discuss social institutions such as religion, the education system, the economic system and the family etc. People are not influenced in the same way due to the change in modern day society. For instance, the family has changed because as oppose to there been so many nuclear families, there are becoming more and more one-parent families, step families, extended families etc, and there is therefore no such thing as a ‘normal’ family anymore due to all the change. Postmodernists hold the view that because of the constant change the views of functionalism and Marxism can no longer be used I order to help us to understand society, instead they see people or groups making their own lifestyle choices. It has become very difficult, because as the postmodernists outline; the institutions within society have become separated and it is now the responsibility of individuals to make their own choices and decisions in society.
Collectivism
Collectivism is a political approach and is aimed at providing health and social care services underpinned by a government commitment, in order to provide support for vulnerable individuals through benefits etc. Collectivism contrasts with the New Right approach which I am going to discuss later in this assignment. The support which is given to individuals is funded through taxation and national insurance. The New Right however, believe that this is not right to rely on the support of the state and they think that people should take more responsibility and become more independent. In every society, there are individuals which are more vulnerable than others; for instance individuals including children, older people, people with physical and mental disabilities etc. In some societies individuals have their own views as to who they think should care and look after these vulnerable individuals, for example, in some societies it will be the individual themselves or their family but in others it may be religious groups or the local community for example. It is all about social role in society. The state had played a very important role in looking after the welfare of people in Britain since the passing of the poor law in 1601, but, however did not take a more significant role until after the Second World War with the birth of the welfare state. The Beverage Report in 1942 provided a comprehensive range of welfare services. The report identified what was known as five giant evils that needed urgently to be challenged. These were;
- Squalor (poor housing)
- Idleness (unemployment)
- Ignorance (inadequate education)
- Disease (ill-health)
- Want (poverty)
This meant that the government was now responsible for the following:
- Fight disease through the National Health Service providing free health services were necessary.
- Eradicate squalor through the building of council houses and charging fair rent.
- Provide secondary education as all this would combat ignorance
- Introduce benefits such as family allowance, which would be paid to families regardless of their income. Sickness benefit unemployment benefit and retirement pensions, would all address poverty.
- Remove idleness by getting people in to employment. The building of council houses meant that for men returning from the war could get jobs on building sites.
Beverige believed that that there was a ‘shame’ attached to using services and thought that this should not be the way. He wanted it to be persons right to use services and said they should not be seen as charity. All of this was to be financed through National insurance and taxes which people pay out as part of their wage.
The New Right
This approach first came into practice when Margaret Thatcher’s government was elected in 1979. She believed that it should not be the responsibility of the government in the provision of welfare, and she said that individuals need to become more independent and take more responsibility for their own family’s welfare rather than becoming dependant on benefits. The government made it clear to individuals that they were not living in a dependency culture, and they need to take responsibility themselves. This government thought that the state should not provide for individuals and that private organisations could run things better, for example, in hospitals where they use private cleaning companies. When her government was elected a lot of things changed in society, for instance; no more council houses built, benefits were cut, the council sold off its care homes to private company’s which meant that these care homes were owned by the bigger more wealthy company’s rather than the better smaller ones. It also saw the introduction of the poll tax, which caused massive riots because people were made to pay the same poll tax no matter what their income was, which meant that the working class were made to pay the same poll tax as the very wealthy.
Conclusion
In this assignment I have considered a range of sociological perspectives and described each in detail. I have referred to a range of sociological terminology to make my explanations more accurate. In my opinion I believe what The New Right say is true as I think individuals should become more responsible and independent in their social roles within society in order for it to run smoothly. They should depend on benefits which are just given to them through the state.
Part Two
To achieve P2 you need to:
Briefly describe the following concepts of health;
- Negative
- Positive
- Holistic
- The World Health Organisation definition
In this assignment I am going to describe briefly the different concepts of health. Sociologists cannot agree on one definition of what it means to be healthy, and it is for this reason why there is a negative concept, positive concept, holistic concept and a World Health Organisation definition.
I am now going to describe the positive and negative concepts of health, which contrast against one another. For instance, the negative concept “can be defined in terms of the ‘absence of disease’”, were they believe that if the individual does not have a specific illness or disease then they are healthy no matter what their living conditions are like, their mental, physical, social, emotional health is like etc. On the other hand the positive concept which is supported by the World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as; “not merely an absence of disease, but a state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being.” Stretch. Beryl. (2007). BTEC National Health and social care book 1.page 352 They believe that in order for the individual to be healthy they need good physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being. So if an individual was depressed, they would be classed as ‘unhealthy’ in the eyes of the WHO as their mental health is been effected and therefore causing ill health to the individual.
I am going to use two different case studies to help me describe both these concepts in more detail.
Case Study 1 – negative concept of health
Susan is a 42 year old widow and is a mother to three children aged 2, 5 and 18. Cathy is currently living in a small, cramped council flat comprising of two small rooms. The flat is damp and quite dirty as it was not in very good condition when she bought it and as she is a full time mum she does not have a lot of time to carry out domestic work around the house. There is a constant, strong smell of smoke within the flat as Susan has started smoking again following the recent death of her husband. As there are only two rooms within the flat; space is limited. Susan shares a bed with her youngest children, whilst her oldest that is 18 years old sleeps on the sofa in the main room. Susan cannot afford the water and electricity bills every month and they therefore can go for days without water in the home. She also has 15 pounds a week to spend on food shopping which has to provide for all her family. As Susan is a full time mum she does not have a lot of time for her other children and they are not achieving their best at school.
This case study can be used to support both concepts of health. Even though the living conditions of Susan and her family are not suitable for them to live in they do not have any particular illnesses or diseases, and the negative concept of health would support this and would therefore view this family as a healthy family until they were to become ill. The positive concept of health however, would believe completely the opposite as the WHO for example; believe that for an individual to be healthy they need a state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being. From looking at the case study above I can see that Susan and her children are not well in all of these areas due to many factors. For instance, Susan cannot afford to pay the water and electricity and they therefore rarely have water that is drinkable which would affect them physically or electricity to keep them warm in the winter which would also affect them physically. As the space within the flat is so limited Susan and her two youngest children share one bed which means that they are not getting the sleep which they require, and also the eldest of Susan’s children sleeps on the sofa which is also inappropriate for them. As the flat is damp and dirty this could lead to bacteria within the home which may eventually lead to illness and disease which could really affect the family. They could suffer from illnesses such as; arthritis or asthma as a result of the wet, damp conditions. As Susan smokes heavily, the children will also be experiencing passive smoking which is affecting their health as the smoke will get on their chests and this could also lead to illnesses like asthma, or even cancer. As a result of these factors, Susan’s children are not achieving the best in which they are capable of doing at school which could really affect their mental health in the future. From looking at the case study I understand that the basic needs of this family are not been met and are causing the family to become unhealthy. All of the above factors relate to the physical, emotional and social well-being of the individuals. In the eyes of the World Health Organisation, members within this family would not be classed as healthy as they are not healthy in all of the areas in which I have stated above.
I am now going to look at another concept of health; the holistic concept. This concept is used by health and social care professionals when caring for service users. They use this concept of health as this enables them to address the needs of the ‘whole’ individual rather than specific issues or identified problems like what the positive and negative concepts look for. The holistic approach to care considers an individuals; intellectual health, spiritual health, social health, physical health, mental health and emotional health. An example of how this concept would be used is when an individual is awaiting treatment, what is known as a multi-disciplinary team would be informed were all of the health professionals within that team like nurses, doctors, GP’s, health visitors etc, would all take into account the individuals needs holistically; they would look at the whole person by carrying out what us called a holistic assessment. A holistic assessment can be defined as; “an approach to care which addresses the physical, social, emotional and spiritual health of the client. This is an approach which attempts to meet the needs of the ‘whole’ person.” Stretch. Beryl. (2007). BTEC National Health and social care book 1.page 352
Mildred Blaxter interviewed almost 10,000 people as part of a large scale study called health and lifestyles. She noticed that there were three different strands to peoples understanding of what health is. These were;
- A positive definition – regarding health as fit and well
- A negative definition – defining health as being free from pain and discomfort
- Functional health – defining health in terms of being able to perform certain, day-to-day tasks.
Stretch. Beryl. (2007). BTEC National Health and social care book 1.page 352
This has proven that defining health can be very difficult because people have different opinions on what they think is actually meant by been healthy. Studies which are carried out to record levels of health within and between societies focuses on issues of ill-health. For instance, sociologists use information about death rates, visits to GP’s, suicide statistics and incidence of notifiable diseases in order to analyse the ill-health within each society. All of these are analysed by social class, occupation, ethnicity, gender, age and geographical location. “It is much easier to measure the negative indicators of health compared with the positive indicators as there is much more information available and it can be measured statistically.” Taken from PowerPoint
The World health Organisation
The World Health Organisation supports the positive concept of health, because I have already discussed it defines health as; “not merely an absence of disease, but a state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being.” Stretch. Beryl. (2007). BTEC National Health and social care book 1.page 352 The WHO is the directing authority for health within the United Nations system. “It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends.” http://www.who.int/about/en/
Conclusion
In this assignment I have looked at the different concepts of health which I have briefly described. The concepts in which I described were; the positive concept, the negative concept, the holistic concept and the definition of the World Health Organisation. In my opinion when a patient is receiving treatment they should be assessed holistically as I believe that the diagnosis would be much more accurate and also it is not just specific issues that health professionals look for they take everything into consideration.
