A Divided Union? The USA, 1941-80

A5 - A Divided Union? The USA, 1941-80

Timeline

The USA and the Second World War

After the First World War the USA had returned to Isolationism. The USA did not want to be dragged into another war that involved European disputer. But when war broke out in Europe in 1939, President Roosevelt wanted to help Britain and prepare the USA for war against Germany. Roosevelt also realised that the problems caused by Japan and Germany’s aggressive foreign policies could affect the USA, so in 1939, he asked Congress for US$1.3 billion to strengthen the USA defences.

How did Roosevelt prepare the USA for war and try to help Britain?

In 1939 he asked Congress for $1,300,000,000 to build up the armed forces.

In 1940 he signed the destroyers for bases deal with Britain.

In 1941 he signed the Lend Lease Act with Britain. This allowed the US government to supply equipment to Britain, which could be returned or paid for at the end of the war.

On 7 December Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbour. Congress voted for war against Japan on 8 December and against Germany and Italy on 11 December.

The impact of the War on American Society

The war severely disrupted the lives of the American people. By 1945, almost 16 million had served in the armed forces. Some of these people had never previously been outside their hometowns. For those not recruited there were other opportunities in other places. To help promote support for the war the government set up schemes such as the Office of Civilian Defence.

How did the war affect the lives of US citizens?

Unemployment fell rapidly, in the early 1941 there were still 8,000,000 people out of work, despite the New Deal, by the end of 1942 unemployment was at an all time low. By 1944 it was at 1.4%.

16,000,000 US citizens served in the armed forces, many had never travelled away from the place they were born.

There were so many jobs available that many students left education to start work. The number of 16-19 year olds at work increased 300%.

The number of working mothers also increased dramatically. This led to an increase in juvenile crime. Many women found work in the defence industries. Importance of automated machinery.

Women join the armed forces, still mainly in a support role, but nurses close to the front line.

The percentage of women working rose from 27 to 37 between 1941 and 1945.

There was strong government pressure upon women to work; the most famous example was the poster campaign based upon “Rosie the Riveter”.

But at the end of the war many women were persuaded to give up work and return to family life.

The impact of the war upon black Americans

Roosevelt had ordered that blacks should get equal treatment under the New Deal, although in the CCC they had to attend separate camps. The same policy continued during the Second World War.

In 1941 Philip Randolph organised a march of 100,000 on Washington, with the slogan “We loyal Americans demand the right to work and fight for our country”. In 1942 the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was set up.

Black Americans were recruited into all three armed services, but had to serve in separate units. Black officers were also ...

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The impact of the war upon black Americans

Roosevelt had ordered that blacks should get equal treatment under the New Deal, although in the CCC they had to attend separate camps. The same policy continued during the Second World War.

Black Americans were recruited into all three armed services, but had to serve in separate units. Black officers were also appointed in all three services. The Air Force began to train black pilots, 600 in all by the end of the war.

Roosevelt attempted to force industry to employ blacks. In 1941 he set up the Fair Employment Practices Committee, but had no power to enforce his policy, except to refuse to give government contracts to companies that would not agree. But the FEPC establishes the idea that civil rights issues are the province of Federal Government.

1,000,000 black American served in the armed forces and 700,000 moved north and west from the southern states. Probably the greatest influence that the war had upon them was that they were taking part in a struggle against a racist dictator.

In 1945 they returned to the USA where many blacks were unable to vote and were condemned to be second-class citizens. In this respect the war was a big boost to the civil rights movement.

By 1946 the NAACP, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People, had 460,000 members. Nevertheless there were riots against blacks in many cities in the USA in 1943 and more than 30 blacks were killed and more.

Japanese-Americans

When war broke out it was decided to move 110,000 Japanese-Americans from their homes on the west coast, because they might be a security risk.

Many were forced to sell most of their belongings and lost $500,000,000 as a result. They were moved to relocation camps where conditions were very poor.

The impact of the war upon the economy

During the war many factories, such as Ford Motors were changed to war production. Wages rose faster than prices, despite controls on both. 17,000,000 jobs were created in the USA.

Federal spending rose 1000% during the war. US Defence spending rises from 1% to 30% of GNP and after 1945 this figure remains between 8% and 20%.

War in Europe meant a big increase in demand for US farm products and prices rose.

USA emerged from the war as an industrial giant. Its economy was head and shoulders above the ruined economies of other nations.

The Cold War continued the high level of spending on armaments into the next decades. Government spending actually doubled from 1950 to 1960.

The standard of living of almost all Americans rose as a result.

The role of Federal Government intervention begun in the New Deal is consolidated in WW2. The idea of "big Government" becomes acceptable to Americans, as having a duty to intervene in social and economic problems.

Many Americans expected a depression after the end of the war, as there had been in 1920-21, but in fact that economy continued to expand. The boom of the 1940s carried on into the 1950s. The key features of that boom, hire purchase, advertising, and a mass market, continued.

By the 1950s most Americans were experiencing the highest standard of living in the world. There was a move out to the suburbs and by 1959 a quarter of all Americans lived in suburbs.

By 1960 87% of homes had a TV. Advertising ensured that the boom continued. By 1960 75% of households had a car.

The Interstate Highways Act of 1956 led to the building of many new roads.

The impact of the war upon US foreign policy

It made the USA into a Superpower. Many Americans felt isolationism was partly to blame for the war. In 1945 the USA did not return to isolationism, and took a lead in setting up the United Nations. It is important to understand that the events of the Cold War impinged very strongly on American attitudes after 1945. To understand these events you must appreciate the international situation. Background of communist advance worldwide, specifically the following events:

a. Berlin Blockade 1948

b. China goes communist 1949. Seen as being "lost" by the left-wingers in the State Department.

c. Speed with which the Soviets got the bomb (effect of atom spies, Julius and Ethel Rosenburg and Claus Fuchs).

Korean War 1950
Nuclear Balance. Ideological rivalry in a bipolar world

Post-War America has to be seen against a background of the superpower rivalry, which led to a prevailing fear of communism in the United States, and communist agents in the US. Communism had been an attractive creed to many in the times of the Great Depression. In such a climate, social reforms and racial reforms proved difficult to bring about. The USA also took up the challenge it saw from Communism, and the Cold War began. This made Americans very suspicious of Communism and led to attacks on people suspected of being communists. In 1947 President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. To persuade Congress to vote for them, Truman talked of a Communist threat to the USA and approved the Federal Employee Loyalty Program. This led to every Federal worker being investigated for Communist sympathies. 4,000,000 people were checked and no cases of spying were discovered. But it was the start of the Red Scare, which led to McCarthyism.

McCarthyism

During the Second World War, the USA had fought on the same side as the Soviet Union. Relations started to deteriorate between the two powers and after 1945, there was a “Cold War” between the democratic USA and the communist Soviet Union. The Americans were convinced that the soviets were trying to spread Communism around the world and the soviets were convinced that the USA was trying to spread democracy. The victory of Communists in China in 1949, the Soviet explosion of an atom bomb in 1949, the Korean War that began in 1950, seemed to confirm the danger. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the USA’s fear of the communists and used it to make him very popular. He had the power to use inquisitional procedure, alien to common law, coupled with power to punish for contempt anyone who obstructed this procedure. Press hostile to communists too. In 1950 he claimed to have 205 known communist names in his hand. However, when his claims were investigated, he wavered on the exact number from 205 to 81 to 57 to “a lot”. Mccarthy was very powerful and destructive. Note effects:

On individuals - 9,500 civil servants sacked, and 15,000 resigned. 600 teachers sacked and many in the film industry rendered unemployable.
And on America. Made persecution of people for their beliefs seem justifiable. Contrary to US tradition of tolerance. Also retarded black advance as civil rights protests were viewed as "communist".

McCarthy attacked members of the government, scientists, diplomats, politicians, actors, film producers and writers. Many of the people he attacked were blacklisted and could not find work for years. Charlie Chaplin left the USA to live in Switzerland and only returned in the 1970s to receive an Oscar. In fact, only one or two cases were ever brought, such as that against Alger Hiss in 1948, which added fuel to McCarthy’s accusations. All those who had opposed the New Deal joined in a reaction. Hiss was sentenced to five years in 1950, but always denied any criminal acts. Recent evidence from the Venona project, decypted Soviet intelligence communications suggests that he may have been guilty. The Hiss trial was followed by the passing of the McCarran Internal Security Act, which stated that it was illegal for Americans to take part in any actions that might lead to a communist government in the USA and imposed other controls on communists.

Immediately after the Hiss case, the Rosenbergs were arrested for spying for the Soviet Union and were eventually executed for passing atomic secrets in 1953.McCarthy now claimed that he had a list of 205 communists working in the State Department. When a Senate committee chairman said that this was fraud, McCarthy accused him of being a communist.

Why was McCarthy so successful?

Many Americans believed that he was defending the country, they saw him as a crusader against communism. McCarthy was also clever, he always attacked and if anybody stood up to him he tried to smear them as well. This meant that few people were prepared to stand up to him, not even President Truman. McCarthy was the chairman of the House Un-American Activities Committee. This gave him real power in Washington and access to television and the media. In 1953 President Eisenhower agree to an investigation of the Civil service and nearly 7,000 people lost their jobs. Many Americans believed that communism was a real threat to the USA and believed McCarthy’s statements. In 1950 and 1951 the communist victories in Korea gave McCarthy a perfect opportunity. He forced General Marshall to resign for “deliberately allowing communist victories”. McCarthy was a skilful and powerful speaker, able to mix up facts with lies until it was difficult to know what to believe.

Why did McCarthy’s influence disappear in 1954?

He never actually produced any real evidence; he always claimed that it was in his briefcase.

In 1954 McCarthy attacked 45 army officers and accused the officers of being communist spies.

The hearings of HUAC were shown on TV, and McCarthy was revealed as a bully.

He never produced any of his lists of names. McCarthyism and the Red Scare were over.

In December 1954 he was censured by the Senate and he died in 1957.

However, McCarthy’s influence survived him. The communist party was banned in the USA in 1954 and people that he had accused continued to be blacklisted for many years. . Post-War America has to be seen against a background of the superpower rivalry, which led to a prevailing fear of communism in the United States, and communist agents in the US. Communism had been an attractive creed to many in the times of the Great Depression. In such a climate, social reforms and racial reforms proved difficult to bring about, and at the same time the ground was fertile for McCarthyism.