History
Iran has a long and rich history. The Iranian civilization was founded 6000 years ago in the southwestern part of what is known as Iran of today. Some of the world's most ancient settlements have been excavated in the Caspian region and on the Iranian plateau; village life there began at about 4000 B.C. The largest of the Persian empires were those of the Achaemenians, the Parthians and the Sassanids. Some of them ruled in a great part of the Asian continent for over 450 years (Metz, 67). Since then there have been over 20 ruling dynasties in Iran. The prime event that shaped Iranian history was the arrival of Islam to Iran. Islam arrived there 1400 years ago, and has played a crucial role in the development of the Iranian culture (Mackey, 113). Another major event was the invasion by Mongols 800 years ago. Even through the often-violent introductions of diverse cultures and religions, Iran never lost the strength and splendor she inherited throughout her vast history.
The discovery of oil in the early 1900s intensified the rivalry of Great Britain and Russia for power over the nation. Internally, the early 20th century saw the rise of the constitutional movement and the shah accepted a constitution establishing a parliament in 1906. Meanwhile, the British-Russian rivalry continued and in 1907 resulted in an Anglo-Russian agreement (which was annulled after World War I) that divided Iran into several spheres of influence (Metz, 99). The period preceding World War I was one of political and financial difficulty. During the war, Iran was occupied by the British and Russians but remained neutral. After the war, Iran was admitted to the League of Nations as an original member.
In 1919, Iran made a trade agreement with Great Britain in which Britain formally reaffirmed Iran's independence but actually attempted to establish a complete protectorate over it. After Iranian recognition of the USSR in a treaty of 1921, the Soviet Union renounced czarist imperialistic policies toward Iran, canceled all debts and concessions, and withdrew occupation forces from Iranian territory (Mackey, 204). In 1921, Reza Khan, an army officer, took over the government through a coup and established a military dictatorship.
Reza Khan was subsequently (1925) elected hereditary shah, thus ending the existing Qajar dynasty and founding the new Pahlevi dynasty. Reza Shah Pahlevi abolished the British treaty, reorganized the army, introduced many reforms, and encouraged the development of industry and education. In August of 1941, two months after the German invasion of the USSR, British and Soviet forces occupied Iran. On Sept. 16 the shah abdicated in favor of his son Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi. American troops later entered Iran to handle the delivery of war supplies to the USSR (Metz, 216).
At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the United States, Great Britain and the USSR signed the Tehran Declaration. This declaration guaranteed the independence and territorial integrity of Iran. However, the USSR, dissatisfied with the refusal of the Iranian government to grant it oil concessions, agitated a revolt in the north. This led to the establishment of the People's Republic of Azerbaijan and the Kurdish People's Republic in December of 1945, headed by Soviet-controlled leaders (Mackey, 184). When Soviet troops remained in Iran following the 1946 expiration of a wartime treaty that also allowed the presence of American and British troops, Iran protested to the United Nations. The Soviets finally withdrew in May of 1946, after receiving a promise of oil concessions from Iran subject to approval by the parliament. The Soviet-established governments in the north, lacking popular support, were deposed by Iranian troops late in 1946, and the parliament subsequently rejected the oil concessions (Metz, 228).
In 1951, the National Front movement, headed by Premier Mussadegh, a militant nationalist, forced the parliament to nationalize the oil industry and form the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC). Although a British blockade led to the virtual collapse of the oil industry and serious internal economic troubles, Mussadegh continued his nationalization policy. Openly opposed by the shah, Mussadegh was ousted in 1952 but quickly regained power. The shah fled Iran but returned when monarchist elements forced Mussadegh from office in August of 1953. Covert U.S. activity was largely responsible for Mussadegh's ousting.
In 1954, Iran allowed an international consortium of British, American, French, and Dutch oil companies to operate its oil facilities, with profits shared equally between Iran and the consortium. After 1953, a succession of premiers restored a measure of order to Iran. In 1957, martial law was ended after being in force for over 16 years. Iran established closer relations with the West, joining the Baghdad Pact (later called the Central Treaty Organization). Iran began receiving large amounts of military and economic aid from the United States until the late 1960s (Metz, 234).
The shah held close reins on the government as absolute monarch, but he moved toward certain democratic reforms within Iran. A new government-backed political party, the Iran Novin party, was introduced and won an overwhelming majority in the parliament in the 1963 and subsequent elections. Women received the right to vote in national elections in 1963 (Schlesinger, 47).
Iran's pro-Western policies continued into the 1970s; however, opposition to such growing Westernization and secularization was strongly denounced by the Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who had been exiled from Iran in 1964. Internal opposition within the country was regularly purged by the Shah's secret police force (SAVAK), created in 1957 (Schlesinger, 59).
The Revolution
The rapid growth of industrialization and modernization programs within Iran, accompanied by bold private wealth, became greatly resented by the bulk of the population. This is especially true of those in the overcrowded urban areas and among the rural poor. The shah's autocratic rule and his extensive use of the secret police led to widespread popular unrest throughout 1978. The religious-based protests were conservative in nature, directed against the shah's policies. Khomeini, who was expelled from Iraq in February of 1978, called for the abdication of the shah. Martial law was declared in September for all major cities. As governmental controls faltered, the shah fled Iran on Jan. 16, 1979. Khomeini returned and led religious revolutionaries to the final overthrow of the shah's government on February 11, 1979 (Schlesinger 81).
The new government represented a major shift toward conservatism. It nationalized industries and banks and revived ancient and militant Islamic traditions. Western influence and music were banned, women were forced to return to traditional veiled dress, and wealthy westernized Iranians fled the country (Wright, 51). A new constitution was written allowing for a presidential system, but Khomeini remained at the executive helm. Clashes occurred between rival religious factions throughout 1979, as oil prices fell. Arrests and executions were rampant (Schlesinger, 112).
On Nov. 4, 1979, Iranian militants seized the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, taking 52 American hostages. Khomeini refused all appeals, and agitation increased toward the West with the Carter administration's economic boycott, the breaking of diplomatic relations, and an unsuccessful rescue attempt (in April 1980). The hostage crisis lasted 444 days and was a source of great frustration and embarrassment to President Carter and his administration. The situation was finally resolved through the Carter administration’s negotiations. Unfortunately for Jimmy Carter, it was resolved on Jan. 20, 1981, the day Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as U.S. president. Carter had arranged for nearly all of Khomeini’s conditions to be met, including the unfreezing of nearly $8 billion in Iranian assets (Wright, 132).
The Iran-Iraq War
On Sept. 22, 1980, Iraq (led by dictator Saddam Hussein) invaded Iran, commencing an eight-year war primarily over the disputed Shatt al Arab waterway. The war rapidly escalated, leading to Iraqi and Iranian attacks on oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984. Fighting crippled both nations, devastating Iran's military supply and oil industry, and led to an estimated 500,000 to one million casualties. Both countries used large amounts of chemical weapons. Khomeini rejected diplomatic initiatives and called for the overthrow of Iraq's president, Saddam Hussein (Wright, 155).
The Iran-Contra Affair
In November of 1986, U.S. government officials secretly visited Iran to trade arms with the Iranians. This was done with the hope of securing the release of American hostages being held in Lebanon -- because Iran had strong political connections with Shiite terrorists in Lebanon. Once news of this surfaced in the United States, there was a public outcry against the Reagan administration’s negotiations with the regime in Iran. This resulted in congressional hearings, which were mainly meant to uncover the extent of the dealings. Very little was accomplished from the meetings, with the exception of some stain on Reagan’s massive popularity (Schlesinger, 198). On July 3, 1988, a U.S. navy warship mistakenly shot down an Iranian civilian passenger aircraft, killing all aboard. That same month, Khomeini agreed to accept a UN cease-fire with Iraq, ending the war (Wright, 214).
Modern History
Khomeini died in 1989 and was succeeded by Iran's president, Sayid Ali Khamenei. The presidency was soon filled by Ali Akbar Rafsanjani, who sought improved relations and financial aid with Western nations while somewhat diminishing the influence of fundamentalist and revolutionary factions and embarking on a military buildup. A major earthquake hit northern Iran on June 21, 1990, killing nearly 40,000 people (Mackey, 244).
When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August of 1990, Iran adhered to international sanctions against Iraq. However, because of hatred towards the United States, Iran condemned the use of U.S. led coalition forces against Iraq during the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Surprisingly, Iran also allowed Iraqi planes fleeing coalition air attacks to land in the country. As a result of the war and its aftermath, more than one million Kurds crossed the Iraqi border into Iran as refugees (Thenstein).
Rafsanjani was reelected president in 1993. The United States suspended all trade with Iran in 1995, after accusing Iran of supporting terrorist groups and attempting to develop weapons of mass destruction – including nuclear weapons. In 1997, Mohammed Khatami, a moderately liberal Muslim cleric, was elected president. This was widely seen as a reaction against the country's repressive social policies and lack of economic progress. Also in 1997, Iran launched a series of air attacks on Iraq to bomb Iranian rebels operating from Iraq. Several European Union countries began renewing economic ties with Iran in the late 1990s. However, the United States continued to block more normalized relations, arguing that the country had been implicated in international terrorism and was developing a nuclear weapons capacity (Thenstein).
9/11 and the Second Gulf War
Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania, relations with Iran were further strained. Public opinion implicated Iran as being a possible source of co-conspiracy. President Bush also implicated Iran as being part of an “axis of evil” that was harmful to the welfare of the United States (Thenstein).
Due to intense bad relations between the two countries, Iran was very vocally opposed to the 2003 U.S. led invasion of Iraq. The purpose of the invasion was to remove the regime of dictator Saddam Hussein. Although Iran has consistently stood opposed to Saddam Hussein’s regime, it still was loud in its opposition. Part of the reasoning behind this lack of support was due to Iranian fears that their nation could be next on the western coalition’s plans (Thenstein).
The Future of Iran/U.S. Relations
It is yet to be seen how the relationship between the two nations will fare in the future. There is a strong push toward representative democracy among Iran’s youth. Iranians today are shifting from militant Islam toward a more open relationship with the west. Perhaps a strong relationship between the two nations can be forged in the near future.
Figure 2: Map of Iran
Source: Thenstein
Figure 3 Flag of Iran
Source: Thenstein
