American History.

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American History

. The means and methods and reasons for the founding of the first English colonies

- By the sixteenth century, many countries, including Spain, France and the Netherlands, had established colonies in the New World. Until the foundation of Jamestown, however, the English didn't have any successful permanent colonies in North America.

- Prior to Jamestown, Sir Walter Raleigh of the Sea Dogs formed a joint stock company and received a charter to found a colony on Roanoke Island in 1584. It failed, and he tried again in 1585 and 1587. Both were failures, and the fate of the 1587 colony remains a mystery (all colonists disappeared).

- Anyhow, several factors encouraged the English to try again with Jamestown even after their earlier failures, and motivated people to join the expeditions. These reasons include...

"Overcrowding" - England had experienced a dramatic population boom,? resulting in social and economic upheaval (inflation, falling wages, peasants losing their land b/c of the enclosure movement, many homeless people, rapidly growing cities).

Competition - The English government was concerned about losing ground in? the competition with the Spanish for overall power and with the Dutch for trading. Since they had colonies, it was only natural that England would want them as well.

Religion - This applies more to the prospective colonists than to the? government. Anyhow, after Henry XIII split from the church in 1533, he established the Anglican Church, which was subsequently taken over by Queen Elizabeth, who swung it more towards the Protestant side. This led to the formation of many English Calvinist [Puritan] groups, who felt that reform should go further. But under the Stuarts [the absolutists], the church went back towards Catholicism w/o the Pope, and many of the Puritans were forced to flee in the 1620s to avoid persecution.

2. Similarities shared by the colonies in the early years of settlement

* They were mostly English speaking * They were mostly farmers * They were mostly adventurous * They were seeking freedom * tobacco harvesting

- Colonial development in the 18th century had several key aspects - population growth [mainly due to natural increase], ethnic diversity, the increasing importance of cities, the creation an urban elite, rising levels of consumption and the growth of a stronger internal economy.

- So, by the second half of the century, social and economic stratification had increased significantly. Additionally, by that time, much of North America had fallen under European control. These changes, along with new trends in thought such as the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, transformed the colonies.

3. Bacon's Rebellion - why did it occur?

- Around the same time, Virginians also experienced conflict w/the Indians b/c of land, although the conflict played out slightly differently. After land-hungry Virginians attacked two Indians tribes, Indians raided outlying farms in retaliation in the winter of 1676.

- Governor William Berkeley, however, was reluctant to strike back b/c: (1) he had trade agreements w/the Indians and didn't want to disrupt them and (2) he already had land and didn't want competition anyway.

- So the angry colonists [many former indentured servants] rallied around recent immigrant Nathaniel Bacon, who held members of the House of Burgesses until they authorized him to attack the Indians and was consequently declared to be in rebellion by Berkeley.

- Throughout the summer of 1676, then, Bacon fought both Indians and supporters of the gov't, even burning Jamestown itself to the ground. Even though the rebellion died w/Bacon in October, the point was made and a new treaty in 1677 allowed more territory to be settled.

- Besides being a turning point in relations w/the Indians, Bacon's rebellion had another very important consequence. As landowners realized that there wasn't much land left to give to indentured servants, the custom stopped and they began looking for slave labor instead.

4. Causes of the Salem Witch trials

- All the upheaval contributed to the famous 1692 Witchcraft Trials, where people were executed b/c of accusations of practicing witchcraft. These ended b/c: (1) ministers started to disapprove (2) the royal charter was implemented and (3) people in high places were accused. 4) Poor, single females were accused

5. Prominent leaders of the Great Awakening

John Locke said that men ruled the government.. - From the mid-1730s to the 1760s waves of religious revivalism swept through America. These revivalists were almost a counterpoint to the Enlightenment b/c they stressed feeling over rationalism.

- The Great Awakening began in New England when in 1734 and 1735 Reverend Jonathan Edwards noted that his youthful members reacted to a Calvinist based message [people can only attain salvation by surrendering completely to God's will] which created intense emotion and release from sin.

- The Great Awakening spread big time when George Whitefield ["the first modern celebrity"] from the Church of England arrived and began touring the colonies and preaching to large audiences. He helped unify the colonies, but he also created a split in religion between the "Old Lights" [traditionalists] and "New Lights" [revivalists]. This eventually led to increased toleration, though.

- The reason for the resistance to the message of the Great Awakening was that it undermined the dependence on the clergy and was also radically egalitarian [which attracted many ordinary people].

6. The economic basis for French colonization in the New World

The French wanted to colonize in the New World because of: *They didn't want Britain to get it all. * They were excellent fur trappers. * They could gain land * They could gain religious freedoms there. * They could start anew there.

7. Reasons for the writing of the Declaration of Independence

* To state America's independence * To unite the colonies * To claim the power for the people * stating god-given rights to all men * To invite foreign aide * To rally domestic resistance * To sever the connection of Britain.

- The First Congress, which first met in April 1789, was mostly controlled by the Federalists [i.e. people who supported the Constitution and a strong national gov't].

- Anyway, Congress had several questions about the structure of the new government to deal with...

Revenue - Madison took the here lead by convincing Congress to pass the? Revenue Bill of 1789, which put a 5% tariff on some imports.

Bill of Rights - Madison also took the initiative here and wrote 19? Amendments for the Constitution, 10 of which were ratified on December 15, 1791 and became known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights helped rally support for the new gov't and mitigate AF opposition.

Organization of the executive - in the end, Congress agreed to keep the? departments established under the AOC [War, Foreign Affairs/State, Treasury] and just add the attorney general and postmaster general. They also decided that only the President could remove heads of executive departments [since he picked them w/Congress approval].

Organization of the judiciary - this was taken care of by the Judiciary Act? of 1789, which defined the jurisdiction of the fed. judiciary and established a 6 member SC, 13 district courts and 3 courts of appeal. It also allowed appeals from state to federal courts w/con. issues.

- Only a few important cases concerning the arrangements passed through the SC in the first 10 years: there was only Ware v. Hylton (1796) where the SC declared a state law unconstitutional for the first time, Hylton v. US (1796) where the SC review the constitutionality of an act of Congress for the first time, and, most importantly, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793) which established [though overruled by the Eleventh Amendment] that states could be sued in federal courts by cit. of other states.

8. The effect of Shays' Rebellion

- So what spurred the change from the AOC to the Constitution? One element was that Americans in trade, finance, and foreign affairs soon realized the AOC was crap b/c Congress couldn't levy taxes, establish a uniform commercial policy, or enforce treaties. Also, the economy, partially b/c of the AOC, fell into a depression after the end of the war (restrictions on exporting to Br./Fr./Sp. colonies).

- Recognizing the economic issues, representatives of Virginia and Maryland met independently at Mt. Vernon in March 1785 to discuss an agreement over trade on the Potomac. It was a success, which led to a call for a general meeting of the states in Annapolis in September 1786 to discuss trade policies. Only 5 delegations ended up coming, but they issued a call for another convention in Philadelphia.

- The other states didn't respond until Shays' Rebellion gave them a wake-up call. In January 27, 1787 Shays led a set of angry western farmers against a federal armory in Springfield. They declared the gov't tyrannical, using language reminiscent of the Declaration of Independence.

- This was the last straw in convincing many a strong central gov't was necessary, so in May 1787 every state ex. Rhode Island sent delegates to a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia.

9. The "Father" of the Constitution

James Madison is known as the Father of the Constitution. James MADISON, also from Virginia, earned the nickname "Father of the Constitution" because time and again his brilliant ideas and tireless energy kept the convention moving toward its goal.

0. The various compromises reached at the Constitutional Convention include?

- Although most of the delegates to the CC were men of property who favored reforms that would give the nat'l gov't more authority over taxation and foreign trade, and many were also involved in the creation of their state constitutions, they still had some differences in opinion...

- For instance, after James Madison proposed the Virginia Plan, delegates from smaller states came up with the New Jersey Plan. The plans were as follows:

Virginia Plan - embodied Madison's idea of a strong nat'l gov't and provided? for a bicameral legislature (lower house elected by people, upper elected by lower) with representation proportional to population, an executive elected by Congress, a nat'l judiciary, and a Congressional veto over state laws.

New Jersey Plan - was a response to the VP, especially by the small states? (didn't like the representation proportional to population deal) who felt the AOC shouldn't be totally thrown out, just strengthened a little (unicameral legislature w/each state having an equal vote, only difference is Congress gets new powers of taxation and trade regulation.)

- The eventual compromise involved the creation of a bicameral legislature in which one house was to be directly elected by the people and the other house was to be elected by the state legislatures. Proportional representation was allowed for the lower house, but the upper house was eventually declared to be equal representation (2 senators, but they would vote as individuals, not as a block).

- On the whole, congressional powers were more limited than in the VP but more flexible than in the NJP. The executive was given primary responsibility for foreign affairs and was designated the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. A key element was separation of powers and checks and balances.

- Then there was the whole should we count slaves dilemma...naturally Southern states wanted them counted for representation purposes and Northern states only wanted them counted for taxation purposes. In the end a slave was declared to be 3/5th of a person. Also, inherent protections of slavery were worked in to the Constitution (slave trade couldn't end for 20 years, fugitive slave laws, etc.)

- Anyhow, the CC had its last session on September 17, 1787 and only then was the Constitution made public. All that was left was ratification...

1. The results of the Peace Treaty of 1783

*1782: The Treaty of Paris*

- The Americans soon disregarded their instructions from their leaders to follow the French b/c they [correctly] realized that the French were not so much their allies as they were Britain's enemies, if you know what I mean.

- The gamble paid off, though, b/c with Ben Franklin leading the negotiations the treaty, which was signed on September 3, 1783 included their two must-have goals: (1) recognition as an independent nation and (2) firm national boundaries from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and from Canada to Florida.

- Of their non-essential goals, they didn't get the one about (!) annexing Canada [you think] but did gain access to the fisheries in Newfoundland [they had requested access to all British fisheries in Canada].

2. Opponents of the US Constitution feared

The Loyalists feared that anarchy would happen in America if they obtained their independence. They felt that under Britain rule, they would have more religious freedoms, keep their money safer, keep their way of life. Many people had been given land by Great Britain and didn't want to lose it.

3. US position with regard to the French Revolution

- In 1789 most Americans supported the FR, but as it got bloodier and bloodier some began to reconsider. Then, in 1793, France declared war on Britain, Spain, and Holland, and the US had a bit of a problem:

On one side, there was the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France and the whole? shared ideals of republicanism thing.

On the other the US had previous bonds to Britain and also depended on? British imports [and the tariffs from them] for $.

- Citizen Genêt - in April 1793 this guy began traveling around America recruiting Americans for expeditions against the British and Spanish. The US responded w/a a declaration of neutrality, but even though Genêt's side got kicked out of power and he just stayed for asylum in the end, arguments continued.

- DR societies, which were organized between 1793 and 1800 and were seen by some as dangerous [ex. Hamilton and even Washington], supported France strongly.

4. Reason(s) for Washington's Neutrality Proclamation

In 1793, Washing & Hamilton said war had to be avoided at all costs because: 1) It wanted to get away from "old world quarrels and to be more isolated. 2) They didn't have the means to support a war. 3)

5. Most memorable part of Washington's Farewell Address

In 1796, Washington strongly advised the avoidance of "permanent alliances", but favored "temporary alliances" for "extraordinary emergencies".

- The Jay's Treaty controversy made the lines between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans even clearer:

Federalists put little emphasis on involving ordinary people in politics,? favored a strong central gov't, preferred commercial interests, were pro-British, and were pessimistic about the future.

DRs disliked a strong central gov't, focused on westward expansion,? preferred agrarian interests, and were more optimistic about the future.

- During the 1790s the majority slowly switched to the DRs.

- Anyhow, before Washington retired he gave the famous Farewell Address, which mainly called for commercial but not political links to other countries [no permanent alliances], stressed the need for unilateralism, and called for unity.

- Then came the election, in which John Adams and Thomas Pinckney went from the Federalist side and Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr represented the DRs.

- Since the electors were only told to vote for their two favorites [the Constitution didn't provide for parties], it ended up that Adams was President and Jefferson was Vice President. Oh no...

6. The Federalists favored

- The First Congress, which first met in April 1789, was mostly controlled by the Federalists [i.e. people who supported the Constitution and a strong national gov't.

- Later in September the CC submitted the Constitution to the states but didn't formally recommend its approval. The ratification clause of the Constitution stated that it would be approved by special conventions in at least 9 states (delegates were to be qualified voters - so it was directly based on popular authority.)

- As states began electing delegates, two distinct camps formed:

Federalists - the Federalists supported the Constitution and stuck by the? virtuous, self-sacrificing republic led by a merit-based aristocracy idea. Since leaders were to be virtuous, there was no need to fear a strong central gov't. Besides, there was the separation of powers.

Antifederalists - the Antifederalists felt that weakening the states would? lead to the onset of arbitrary and oppressive gov't power (based on Real Whig ideology.) Antifederalists were generally old hard core revolutionaries (Tom Paine, Sam Adams, etc.) and small farmers.

- One thing that was big on the Antis agenda was the idea of a Bill of Rights (why doesn't the Constitution have one?), best expressed in the major Anti pamphlet, Letters of a Federal Farmer.

- Anyhow, the Federalists won out (duh), partially b/c of the publication of The Federalist and partially b/c of the promise to add a bill of rights. Ratification was (prematurely, it turns out) celebrated on July 4, 1788.

7. The Marshall Court advocated

The Marshall Court advocated loose interpretations of the Constitution and improvements of Federal powers.

8. Positive results of the War of 1812

- Even though the US military situation certainly left something to be desired, by 1812, war seemed almost inevitable due to constant violation of US rights in the seas.

- Anyhow, first there was the Presidential Election of 1812, which was somewhat of a referendum on the whole war thing. Madison was reelected.

- Then, while the DR "War Hawks" elected in 1810 pressed for war, Britain made last ditch efforts to fix the situation in spring 1812 [ships told to stop clashing w/US, seas reopened to US shipping] but it was too late.

- Congress soon voted over war, w/the land-hungry Southerners and Westerners ["War Hawks"] in favor and the commerce-dependent New Englanders against. The WH won out, and on June 19 Madison signed the bill and the war began.

- Not surprisingly, the US was totally unprepared:

The DRs debt reduction program had essentially reduced the army and navy to? total crap [the navy had a whopping 17 ships].

Nobody enlisted in the national army, only in some of the state militias. In? the West there was initially a good response, but after word spread that the War Dept. wasn't paying people on time and they were low on supplies, nobody wanted to join anymore. In New England, people saw it as "Mr. Madison's War" and didn't want to enlist from the start.

Financial problems due to lowered revenue/import taxes b/c of the embargo? and war.

Regional disagreements - New England state militias wouldn't leave their? state lines.

- But, of course, the US decided to try and invade Canada anyway, which led to numerous disasters: first General William Hull totally screwed up and ended up surrendering Fort Detroit, and then the attempted invasion from Niagara failed b/c the NY militia refused to leave its state borders.

- On the naval front the British had no problem keeping their hold over the oceans and, by 1814, was blockading almost every American port, which led the US gov't to the brink of bankruptcy.

- In the Great Lakes a shipbuilding race began, which the US won, leading to their victory at the Battle of Put-in-Bay on September 10, 1813 and subsequent control over Lake Eerie.

- The US also emerged victorious in the Kentucky region, where General William Henry Harrison led his state militia against the British, Shawnee and Chippewa forces at the Battle of the Thames. The US regained control of the Old Northwest, and Tecumseh was killed, which hurt Indian unity big time.

- After the US burned the Canadian capital of York, the British [who no longer had to worry about Napoleon, who they beat in April 1814] went down to the Chesapeake, where they set fire to Washington DC and burned it to the ground. The key battle then occurred at Baltimore in September 1814 - the Brits. Inflicted heavy damage, but the war was basically stalemated in the region.

- The last campaigns took place in the South against the Creeks and British - the Creeks were defeated by Andrew Jackson at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in March 1814 [Treaty of Fort Jackson, they had to give up 2/3rds of their land]; the British were defeated at the famous Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815 [the war had officially ended by then though].

*Peace and the Effects of the War of 1812*

- The Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814 and was negotiated by JQ Adams and Henry Clay. Strangely enough, there was no mention of any of the issues that actually started the war - all the treaty did was restore the good 'ol status quo. This was acceptable to negotiators b/c Napoleon had been defeated, which meant impressment was no longer a concern.

- So what did the war do?

It reaffirmed American independence [taught the British a second lesson] and? further convinced the US to stay out of European politics.

It destroyed Indian resistance [Tecumseh died], leading to American? expansion to the South and West [but not into Canada].

It exposed American militarily weakness and made clear the importance of? better transportation systems, which then made improving those two items nat'l priorities. In 1815 Madison centralized control of the military and began building a line of costal forts, and work on the National Road progressed into the West.

It finished off the Federalist party. Although the Federalists made slight? gains in the 1812 election, they were undermined by fanatics who met in the Hartford Convention and discussed possible session b/c NE was losing its political power to the South/West. This wouldn't have been so bad if it hadn't been timed right around the Battle of New Orleans, which made the whole thing look really stupid, not to mention treasonous. So that was the end of the Federalists.

Most importantly, the war stimulated domestic manufactures, which leads us? to...

*Commerce and Industry*

- The early republic's economy was mainly shipping based - the US was supplied food to Europe [esp. during the war] and also exported items such as cotton, lumber and sugar in exchange for manufactures. As a result of the Embargo Act and the war, however, domestic manufacturing increased.

- Samuel Slater set up the first textile mill in the 1790s, but manufacturing didn't really pick up until the war b/c the DR gov't did not promote home industry.

- Finally in 1813 the Boston Manufacturing Company was chartered and the first American power loom was constructed in Waltham, Mass. Before long, many women were purchasing the cloth made by the workers rather than producing their own.

- Esp. initially, the mill managers adopted a paternalistic approach towards their young women workers, promising good living conditions and occasional evening lectures in order to lure NE farm daughters to the factory. This Lowell System soon spread to all the NE river mills.

- And that was just the beginning...

Nationalism, Expansion and the Market Economy (1816 - 1845)

*Postwar Nationalism in the "Era of Good Feelings" (1815 - 1824)*

- After the successful conclusion of the War of 1812, nat'lism surged and the DRs began to encourage the economy and pass more nat'list legislation.

- In his second term (1812 - 1816) Madison proposed economic and military expansion through the creation of a second nat'l bank and improvements in transportation. To raise $ for this and to help manufacturing, Madison suggested implementing a protective tariff [but unlike the Federalists he claimed that only a constitutional amendment could give the fed. gov't the power to build roads/canals].

- Congress viewed the plan as a way of unifying the country, and most of the program was enacted in 1816: the Second Back of the United States was chartered, the Tariff of 1816 was passed, and funds were appropriated for the extension of the National Road to Ohio [though Calhoun's big road/canal plan was vetoed by Madison].

- In the Presidential Election of 1816 DR James Monroe easily triumphed over the last Federalist Presidential candidate, Rufus King from NY. The lack of party rivalry caused a Boston newspaper to dub the time the "Era of Good Feelings." Monroe continued to support Madison's programs.

- The only place that remained a Federalist stronghold was the Supreme Court, which was still led by Chief Justice John Marshall. He ruled in favor of a strong central gov't in the following cases:

Fletcher v. Peck (1810) - in this case the SC ruled against a Georgia law? that violated individuals' rights to make contracts.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) - in this case SC ruled against a Maryland law? taxing the Second Bank of the US and consequently asserted the supremacy of the federal gov't over the sates. Marshall also reinforced a loose constructionist view of the Constitution by reaffirming that Congress had the right to charter the bank. He sided w/the commercial/industrial side too.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) - in this case the SC nullified a NH? law altering the charter of Dartmouth College.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) - confirmed federal jurisdiction over interstate? commerce.

- So Madison's second term and Monroe's terms were characterized by nat'lism and improvement in transportation, the military, and manufacturing.

9. Provisions of the Missouri Compromise

- Nat'lism united Americans, but the question of slavery still threatened to divide them. With the exception of an act ending the foreign slave trade [January 1, 1808], the issue had been avoided as much as possible.

- In 1819 [Monroe's first term], however, debate over slavery became unavoidable when Missouri petitioned Congress for admission to the Union as a slave state.

- The issue dominated Congress for 21/2 years, for it could easily upset the carefully created balance between slave and free states. If Missouri was admitted as a slave state, slavery would be push towards the North, and slave states would gain a one-vote edge over free states in Congress.

- At one point NY Representative James Tallmadge, Jr. proposed gradual emancipation in Missouri, which outraged Southerners. Although the House passed the Tallmadge amendment, the Senate rejected it.

- Finally, in 1820 House Speaker Henry Clay proposed the Missouri Compromise - Maine would enter as a free state [it was taken out of Massachusetts] and Missouri would enter as a slave state, but in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of 36'30° slavery was prohibited.

- The agreement worked but almost was destroyed in November when Missouri's constitution was found to bar free blacks from entering. So Clay proposed a second compromise in 1821 - Missouri wouldn't discriminate against citizens of other states. Once admitted to the Union, Missouri ignored the compromise, but for the short term conflict had once again been avoided.

20. Effects of Chief Justice Marshall's rulings

- The SC, b/c of Federalist Chief Justice John Marshall, continued to uphold federal over states' rights and protect business interests, even after the DRs became a majority in 1811. Marshall was also responsible for elevating the stature of the judicial branch, especially through Marbury v. Madison (1803), where Marshall gave up the right to issue writs of mandamus in return for the greater power of judicial review [power of SC to rule state and federal laws unconstitutional and get rid of them].

21. The Monroe Doctrine provided for

- Foreign policy during this period was placed in the capable hands of John Quincy Adams, who served as Secretary of State (1817 - 1825) and was a skillful diplomat and negotiator. JQ was an expansionist who pushed to obtain fishing rights for the US in the Atlantic, political separation from Europe, and peace.

- Important post-war treaties under JQ include...

Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817) - agreement between the US and GB to limit their? naval forces in the Great Lakes. It was the first modern disarmament treaty and led to the eventual demilitarization of the US-Canada border. Then, at the Convention of 1818 the US-Canada border was fixed at the 49th parallel.

Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) - agreement between US and Spain that completed the? US acquisition of Florida [Northern border came from the Pinckney treaty, Western border in 1810, and the Northeast was invaded by Jackson in 1818, which precipitated the Seminole Wars].

- Only one danger zone remained for the US after the treaties, and that was Latin America. In 1822, the US became the first non-Latin American nation to recognize the newly formed countries - but JQ was quick to realize that France would soon try to return the region to colonial rule.

- GB also caught this and proposed a joint US-British statement against European intervention in the area, but JQ refused, insisting the US had to act independently.

- In December 1823 the Monroe Doctrine was introduced to Congress. It basically called for: no more European colonization of the Western Hemisphere or European intervention in independent American nations. In return the US wouldn't interfere in Europe.

- Essentially, the MD was a big bluff b/c the US didn't have the military strength to enforce it. Luckily, the British had their own motives for keeping the rest of Europe away [trade], so it worked out.

22. The intent/result of the Spoils System was

- In the Presidential Election of 1828, poor J.Q. was up against all the rabid Jackson supporters who had been waiting for their revenge. Mudslinging was the order of the day [think modern campaign tactics], but e/t the NRs were able to attack Rachel Jackson as a bigamist [don't ask] Jackson creamed them.

- As proved by Jackson's mass-produced campaign stickers and stuff [a first] and his extensive, nat'l level campaign work, the sit-back-and-be-elected era had definitely ended and the time of popular movements had begun. "Old Hickory" had to first well-organized nat'l party in US history.

- So what did Jackson do when he became President?

Well, like Jefferson, he managed the tricky task of strengthening the? executive branch's power even while reducing federal power as a whole by: (1) relying on a "Kitchen Cabinet" of his political friends instead of his official one, (2) rewarding his followers and confronting his enemies, and (3) rotating officeholders [spoils system] to keep Democrats in office.

On the limiting the gov't side, Jackson vetoed nat'list programs, such as? the Maysville Road Bill (1830), declaring them unconstitutional.

- Jackson was very anti-elitist and all [reformer in sense that he returned gov't to majority rule] but he was also very egotistical in his claims to represent the people - something that infuriated his opponents, who pointed out that he was corrupting the gov't through the spoils system and called him "King Andrew."

- But the main issue during Jackson's first term was...

23. The Cherokee Nation was successful in this

- In the end, all the tribes were moved, making it clear that even adapting to American ways could not prevent removal. The Cherokees were the best example - they had a constitution and political structure, but the South refused to respect them. They appealed to the SC in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and the court ruled in their favor. Still, Georgia refused to comply.

- Jackson decided not to interfere b/c it was a state matter [really b/c he just wanted to kick out the Indians anyway] and allowed the Indians to be forced out w/funds from the Removal Act of 1830. The Choctaws were moved first, then the Creeks.

- Finally the Cherokees [who were divided - some wanted to give up and exchange their land for western land, most didn't want to give up] were marched by military escort in the Trail of Tears in 1838 after their lobby to the Senate failed

24. Provisions of the Indian Removal Act

- As Americans increasingly pushed West, the former occupants inevitably were forced onwards as well. Although the Constitution acknowledged Indian sovereignty and gov't relations w/Indian leaders followed internat'l protocol, in reality, it was a bunch of crap.

- Basically, the US used treaty making to acquire Indian land - through either military or economic pressure the Indians were forced to sign new treaties giving up more and more land. Some Indian resistance continued after the War of 1812, but it only delayed, not prevented, the US.

- Many Indian nations attempt to integrate themselves in the market economy. For example, some lower Mississippi tribes became cotton suppliers and traders. This turned out badly, though, b/c the trading posts would extend debt to chiefs that would later be used to force them off the land.

- As the cotton economy spread, then, Indians fell into patterns of dependency w/the Americans, which made it easier to move them. Indian populations also fell drastically due to war and disease.

- The US gov't also attempt to assimilate the Indians into American culture [in 1819 $ was appropriated for that cause and mission schools were est.] Missions taught the value of private property and Christianity. For most, however, assimilation seemed too slow, and illegal settlers began crowding Indians everywhere.

- By the 1820s it was obvious the Indians just weren't about to give up land fast enough, and attention turned to the more powerful, well-organized southeastern tribes.

- In 1824, prompted by pressure from Georgia, Monroe suggested that all Indians be moved beyond the Mississippi River [no force would be necessary, he thought]. This was aimed primarily at the southern Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Cherokees, who all rejected the proposal.

- In the end, all the tribes were moved, making it clear that even adapting to American ways could not prevent removal. The Cherokees were the best example - they had a constitution and political structure, but the South refused to respect them. They appealed to the SC in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and the court ruled in their favor. Still, Georgia refused to comply.

- Jackson decided not to interfere b/c it was a state matter [really b/c he just wanted to kick out the Indians anyway] and allowed the Indians to be forced out w/funds from the Removal Act of 1830. The Choctaws were moved first, then the Creeks.

- Finally the Cherokees [who were divided - some wanted to give up and exchange their land for western land, most didn't want to give up] were marched by military escort in the Trail of Tears in 1838 after their lobby to the Senate failed.

- Removal was a disaster for the Indians [you think?] - many became dependent on the gov't for survival, internal conflicts arose, as did problems with existing tribes.

- In Florida a small band of Seminoles continued their resistance through a small minority under Osceola that opposed the 1832 Treaty of Payne's Landing, which provided for their relocation. When troops were sent in 1835, Osceola used guerilla warfare against them until his capture and death in prison, after which the group fought under other leaders until the US gave up in 1842.

25. Impact of the cotton gin / other advances

- Agriculture still remained the backbone of the economy in the market economy era - it just changed from self-sufficient household units producing enough for their sustenance to larger, market-oriented ventures.

- Each areas of the country began to specialize its production, as follows:

New England - due to a lack of space and bad terrain, commercial crop? farming became increasingly impractical in NE beginning in the 1820s. Instead, NE families improved their livestock, specialized in dairy/vegetable/fruit production [financed through land sales, which really was the greatest source of profit], moved west, or gave up on farming altogether.

Old Northwest/Western Territories - this region took over the commercial? crop farming from NE. Large, flat farms were formed, and the mechanization of agriculture helped enormously. In 1831 Cyrus McCormick invented the reaper, which he patented in 1834 and began making in a factory, and in 1837 John Deere invented the steel plow.

South - after 1800, the South shifted from a more diverse agriculture to one? based almost entirely on cotton. This was due to Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793, which separated short-staple [the easy to grow kind] cotton from its seeds efficiently. Although the South was in internat'l markets, it remained a rural society, w/most of the wealth in land and slaves, and couldn't shift to manufacturing or commerce [business decisions made in North].

- Overall, specialization benefited many, but also made it more difficult for farmers to start up [high land prices] and therefore increased the # of tenant farmers.

26. Development of interchangeable parts equaled?

- American production began with copies of British or other European designs, but before long Americans were creating their own machines [ex. Matthew Baldwin, steam locomotives, by 1840 exported internat'lly].

- The American System of Manufacturing was created, which involved using precision machinery to produce interchangeable parts that didn't require adjustment to fit. Eli Whitney promoted the system in 1798 w/respect to rifles, and by the 1820s the US had contracts w/firms to produce machine made firearms. The system soon spread to mainstream manufactures, leading to an outpouring of consumer goods.

- But the biggest industry was without a doubt textiles, which had been helped by the embargo, war, and the expansion of cotton cultivation. The big innovation was machine-spun textiles in mills, a system that especially took hold in NE [Lowell, Massachusetts].

- Mass produced textiles led to the ready-made clothing industry [by 1820s/1830s most clothing was mass produced], either via factories or by the putting-out system, and retail clothing stores appeared in the 1820s.

- The expansion of manufacturing directly encouraged a rise in commerce - agents began to specialize in finance alone [cotton brokers, corn brokers, etc.] and general merchants declined, remaining more in rural areas than in cities.

- Esp. in large northeastern commercial cities, merchants engaged in complex transactions - leading to both the rise of the office as we know it and the expansion of financial institutions.

- The Second Bank of the US, which was esp. attacked during the Panic of 1819, was finally killed off in 1836, leading to a nat'l credit shortage, which, combined with the Panic of 1837, led to reforms in banking.

- The new free banking system, initially introduced in Michigan and NY, meant that any bank that met minimum standards would get a charter automatically. This stimulated the economy in the 1840s/1850s.

27. Results of the Second Great Awakening

*The Second Great Awakening*

- The wave of reform that swept America in the early nineteenth century was both a reaction to the radical changes American society experienced following the War of 1812 [immigration, market economy, expansion] and to the Second Great Awakening (1790s - 1840s).

- During the SGA preachers encouraged sinners to repent and offered them a chance to become true Christians. Salvation was available for all through personal conversion. This philosophy increased lay participation, made religion more democratic, and led to efforts to reform society.

- In the South, revival attendance was very high [esp. women and African Americans] - the "Bible belt." In the North, former NY lawyer Charles Finney led the movement following his conversion in 1821. Finney emphasized the power of spontaneous personal conversions, stating that anyone could be saved that way.

- The SGA caused people to believe the Second Coming was drawing near and inspired people to try to speed the process by fighting evil through reform. All the sects of the SGA also shared a belief in self-improvement and the formation of organizations to help others convert.

- Women were more involved in this than men were [though they often forced their husbands and families into it as well]. For women, revival meetings and reform societies offered unique opportunities for participation in public life and politics.

*The Pursuit of Perfection: Nineteenth Century Reform Movements*

- Some of the most significant nineteenth century reform movements include...

Anti-Prostitution - after a divinity student published a report in 1830? about the incidence of prostitution in NYC, women began a drive to help reform the prostitutes and stop young men from abusing women through the Female Moral Reform Society (1834). As the decade progressed the FMRS opened chapters throughout the nation, and became involved politically.

Temperance - one of the most successful reform efforts, the temperance? movement worked towards reducing alcohol consumption [much higher then that it is now]...

The movement was both inspired by religion [alcohol=sin], by women who found? that their families were being destroyed by alcoholism, and was favored by employers who realized their employees would be more efficient w/o it.

Even popular culture reflected the movement's ideology - Timothy Shaw? Arthur's Ten Nights in a Barroom (1853), Deacon Robert Peckham's temperance paintings.

As the years passed the emphasis of reformers shifted from moderation to? abstinence to prohibition. The movement was very successful [sharp decline in alcohol use, some states prohibited its sale], but continued to rise even as consumption fell.

From the 1820s on, the movement also began targeting immigrants and? Catholics as the source of the problem - most Catholics favored self-control over state laws.

28. Reason for Dorothea Dix's fame

Penitentiaries and Asylums - state institutions to hold criminals began? w/good intentions [rehabilitate them], but they soon became overcrowded and inhumane. Mentally ill people were also put in the prisons along with the criminals. Reformers, esp. Dorothea Dix, successfully pressed for improvements in prisons and the creation of asylums. She wrote about the conditions and requested congressmen to visit the mentally ill.

29. Definition of "manifest destiny"

It was the United States' "clear destiny" that it needed to occupy all of North America. This mainly hinted towards Texas, California, & Oregon.

*Manifest Destiny / Expansionism*

- Expansionist fervor only increased through the 1830s and 1840s and soon became a part of politics. The mid 1840s saw the rise of the whole manifest destiny idea, which was spurred by nat'l pride esp. after the depression ended in 1843, by racism ["we can use the land better than Native Americans can"] and by a desire to eliminate perceived external threats to nat'l security.

- The big goals for expansionists were...

TEXAS (Southerners) - Texas had been settled by Americans since 1821, when? Mexico became independent and opened the area to all. By 1835, the settlers were numerous, powerful, and tended to ignore the Mexican gov't, causing dictator Santa Anna to tighten control. This sparked a rebellion, which culminated in Texan independence and the establishment of the Lone Star Republic in 1836. Texas opened annexation negotiations w/Washington and Tyler, eager to gain the 1844 Democratic nomination, pushed for it. The Senate, however, rejected it - Northerners and Whigs didn't like the idea.

OREGON (Northerners) - Oregon had been split between the US and Britain? since the Convention of 1818, but when "Oregon Fever" broke loose in 1841 fervid expansionists began demanding the entire area for the US ["Fifty-four forty or fight"].
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- Naturally, expansion into Oregon and the rejection of Texas worried Southern leaders, who responded by convincing the 1844 Democratic convention to use a new rule - if candidate not chose by 2/3 of convention he's out. This blocked Van Buren as the nominee and led to the selection of James K. Polk [hard money Jacksonian, expansionist, slaveholder].

- So in the Presidential Election of 1844 Polk ran against Henry Clay [Whigs] and James Birney [Liberty Party, took votes from Clay] and beat them both.

- Right before leaving office, though, Tyler got Texas admitted into ...

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