In large –scale battles attacking infantry wound tend to approach the enemy in one, two or three lines of two ranks each, around a thousand men long. The second line would be followed by about 250 yards behind the first and the third was held in reserve for rapid movement. Defenders and attackers usually sent out one or two companies of a regiment as skirmishes (a minor battle in war) to delay the enemy before the main battle occurred. The attack usually broke down into an “advance by rushes”, the first line working forward. If the first line could not approach, the second line would be fed in to restore the attack’s momentum followed by the third if necessary.
Battles usually disintegrated into a series of engagements during which infantry traded volleys, charged and counter-charged. The majority of battles were hammering matches simply because of the nature of the combat. In May 1864, some 19 million bullets were fired in a single week of combat in North Virginia. Usually the beaten army would retreat a few miles to heal their wounds. Politicians did not know how difficult it was for a victorious army to gather supply trains and exhausted soldiers for a new attack.
Officers who were expected to lead from the front suffered far greater casualties than the enlisted men. Many generals exposed themselves carelessly to enemy fire, the chance of becoming a casualty stood 50% greater than it did by an ordinary soldier.
Cavalry
The rifle replaced the cavalry on the battlefield. The main role of cavalry was to scout, make raids against supply lines, guard an army’s flanks, screen its movements, obtain supplies and occasionally to chase a broken enemy. Cavalrymen usually fought as infantry. Confederate cavalry proved themselves superior to those of the union at the start of war, which was partly due to excellent leaders like Jeb Stuart and Nathan Bedford Forrest. Confederate cavalry were admired throughout the war for their ability to strike quickly and deeply into Northern territory. By 1863 Union cavalry was as good as Confederate cavalry.
Artillery
In 1861 artillery was regarded as crucial to battlefield success. Light artillery proved itself in the Mexican War, with horse artillery galloping close to the enemy devastating volume of fire. Artillery batteries had limited effectiveness against an entrenched enemy. Extensive forests or rugged country made mobility difficult. The North had the manufacturing potential to produce more and better guns.
Communications
Affected Civil War strategies and tactics considerably. The Civil War was the first great railway war. Both sides used railways to move masses of men to the front and to keep them supplied. The Confederacy found it difficult to maintain its railway system the Union did not. Steamboats played a vital role in terms of combat and supply. In one trip it could support an army of 40,000 men and 18,000 horses for two days.
Telegraphy enabled commanders to communicate with units on widely separated fronts ensuring co-coordinated advances.
Britain’s attitude to the War
Due to the fact that Britain had a great naval, economic, financial and imperial strength that included the possession of Canada, it was the key European power. Only Britain could lead to a serious challenge to the Union. Although Britain had important historical, political and economic ties with the USA, relations between the two countries had been influenced by mutual resentments that had festered since the American Revolution. Disagreements developed with disturbing regularity and before 1861, many British officials held a negative view of the Americans as they saw that it was capable of international mischief. Both the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell knew that there were good reasons for supporting the Confederacy. Long-term self-interest would by achieved if the USA would break-up as is it was a potential rival in the none-too-distant future.
An independent Confederacy would certainly lead to economic links with Britain, providing Britain with raw cotton in return for British manufactured goods. 20% of the British people were dependent on cotton for a living and there was a high probability of massive unemployment. Upper classes tended to support the south because they disliked Yankee manners and values. Opinion among British workingmen was divided e.g. In Lancashire, where there was a high interest in cotton, pro-Southern feeling was common, on the other side, a large minority, aware that slavery lay at the heart of the conflict supported the north.
On the other hand, there were a number of good reasons for Britain keeping out of the conflict. Interfering could easily result in the loss of Canada. The impact of a cotton famine and wheat famine could occur if Britain fought against the north. Britain’s problem was whether to recognize the Confederacy as a sovereign state.
Lincoln’s administration made it clear that the conflict was a domestic rebellion in consequence was equivalent to a declaration of war against the USA.
In May 1861 the British government adopted a compromise position while declaring its neutrality and not recognizing the Confederacy as a sovereign state. Having declared itself neutral, the British government made every effort to remain so.
Diplomatic Incidents
The Confederate government put considerable hopes on achieving support from Britain and France. In 1861 most southerners put their faith in “King Cotton” believing that Britain and France would be forced to recognize Confederacy and break the blockade because of their need of “white gold”.
Cotton embargo was introduced, Charleston Mercury described the argument in June 1861 as: “the cards are in our hands and we intend to play them out to the bankruptcy of every cotton factory in Great Britain and France or the acknowledgement of our independence. The embargo ploy failed to sell their most valuable commodity”- (product). The embargo was an obvious form of economic blackmail, which angered the Europeans who might otherwise have been sympathetic to the South. The Confederate play, which had had a high chance of working failed.
Union Diplomacy
Northern politicians and diplomats from Lincoln downwards, are often admired for their dealings with Britain during the Civil War. It is claimed that Northern diplomats won the Union victory more by Northern soldiers than by the soldiers. Charles Francis Adams, the US minister in London, was a skilled diplomat who did everything to ensure the strict maintenance of Britain neutrality. William Seward is also admired for his abrupt and at times threatening attitude to Britain.
Lincoln usually left policy to Seward; only when there was a serious crisis did he interfere.
The Problem of Neutral Rights
The main difficulty between Britain and the Union was the issue of neutral rights at sea. The British government, aware of the importance of patterns for the future, was unenthusiastic to question the blockade weapon. Crisis arose with the “Trent affair”.
In November 1861 James Mason and John Slidell, Confederate commissioners to Britain and France respectively, left Cuba for Europe on the Trent- a British royal mail steamer. Soon after leaving Havana the vessel was stopped by Captain Wilkes, commanding the US ship. Warning to take actions against the Trent, Wilkes removed Mason and Slidell from the British ship. For Anglo-American relations, the transatlantic cable made rapid communication impossible. Britain demanded US to make a public apology and to release Mason and Slidell.
The British cabinet set up a War Committee, stooped the export of essential war materials to the Union, making the Trent affair a serious dilemma for Lincoln. He played for time allowing passions to cool down. Compromise was eventually found, Seward’s response to the British demand, was a masterpiece. It confused the question, suggested that the Americans had won the argument, did not apologize for Wilkes’ action but admitted to have committed an illegal act accepting that Mason and Slidell should be freed.
British Mediation? (An attempt to bring a peaceful settlement)
In August 1862 after its triumph at Second Manassas, the Confederacy came the closest to getting British recognition. Napoleon III’s proposal that Britain and France should do all they could do to avoid conflict was considered by Palmerston and Russell who hoped to bring about an end to the war. The failure of Lee’s Maryland invasion convinced Palmerston that it the wisest thing was not to intervene even though some members of cabinet still wanted to take action. When Russell prepared a memorandum arguing for mediation Palmerston and the cabinet rejected it, when Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation it became more unlikely for Britain to risk war.
Cotton shortage hit Britain during the winter of 1862-3 causing high unemployment in Lancashire but improved as a result of increased imports from India, China and Egypt.
Commerce Raiders (surprise attack)
The Confederacy did receive valuable assistance from Britain; especially British shipbuilders supplied vessels for a variety of Confederate purposes. The Confederacy was also able to purchase commerce raiders, which caused massive damage to Northern merchant shipping; altogether the North lost some 200 ships to the raiders. By 1865 over half the American merchant fleet had been effectively lost. The last serious crisis between the Union and Britain was in the summer of 1863. Lincoln’s government was aware that the British shipbuilders were building two ironclads for the Confederacy, which would have the potential to cause massive damage to the North. The British government, as Adams was aware, had no intention of allowing the rams to be sold and in the end both vessels went into service with the Royal Navy.
In August 1863 Confederate Secretary of State Benjamin, convinced that Britain would never grant recognition, ordered Mason to end his mission and withdraw from London.
