Neo-genocide: This occurred in the later 19th century and was a particularly sad period in American history. The number of Native Americans fell very substantially during this period. The Native Americans of the plains suffered heavily from the Vigilante groups which decimated the buffalo herds which was fundamental to these Native Americans. In addition, the building of railways, roads, ports, military forts and the incursion of miners looking for gold all interfered with the livelihood and lifestyle of the plains. Hostilities were widespread, fighting was fierce and atrocities occurred on both sides.
Forced assimilation: In the late 19th century, when fighting was still ongoing on the frontier in the west between the Native Americans and the settlers, attitudes were changing on the east coast. The Civil War had been fought in part to free a minority group (black slaves). People in the east therefore felt uncomfortable about another minority group (Native Americans) treatment in the west. There was a desire to “Americanise” the Native Americans. This was to involve three elements i.e. the religion, the education and the land ownership. This forced assimilation occurred in the last 2 decades of the 19th century and well into the 20th century.
Native Americans in the 20thcentury
Prior to the 20th century, relationships between European-Americans and the Native Americans had passed through three phases. These were cohabitation, separation and neo-genocide. Towards the end of the 19th century, forced assimilation began.
Forced assimilation (late 19th and early 20th century)
This came about in three ways:
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Religious conversion: Missionaries had been working amongst the Native Americans throughout much of the 19th century but Christian religion was now being imposed upon the Native Americans in the reservations.
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Education: Many Native American children were sent to white boarding school in the late 19th century. These were harsh and repressed Native American culture. When these schools became expensive, public schools were setup in the reservation and teaching was through the medium of English.
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Property ownership: Native Americans had no tradition of personal ownership of land. However in 1887, the General Allotment/Dawes Act was passed. This allotted 160acres of land for each Native American family and the remainder of the land were sold of. Within 10years of the act, the land base of the Native Americans was reduced by 2/3. The Native Americans were expected to become farmers. For some tribes whose lifestyle depended on nomadic hunting, farming was thought to be demeaning. In 1902, the Dead Indian Land Act was passed and this allowed the Native Americans to sell of their land rather than passing them on to the children. In the early 20th century, there was unemployment, apathy and family breakdown amongst the disillusioned Native Americans.
Reorganisation and Self government (1928-45)
The Meriam Report in 1928 made clear the appalling conditions in which Native Americans were living on the reservations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was reorganised to improve conditions for the Native Americans. The Indian Reorganisation Act in 1934 was passed which ended the allotment laws. Some elements of self government were returned to the tribes. Government support was given to Native American initiatives related to farming and tourism. Erosion of the Native Americans land base ceased after 300years of reduction. During WW2, many Native Americans left the reservations to work in the city factories for the war effort. Others joined the armed forces. This marks the beginning off the reservations.
Termination (1945-61)
Following WW2, attitudes towards Native Americans changed yet again and there was a swing back towards forced assimilation into American life. An attempt was made to give compensation to Native Americans for outstanding land claims. This only partly achieved. “Termination” relates to the ending of Special Tribal Legal Status of the Native Americans. They would now become loyal to the state and the country.
Self Determination (1961 to date)
Native Americans stopped identifying very strongly within individual tribe in an effort to increase the assertion of the whole Native American population. In 1971, a Native American was appointed head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1975, the Indian Self Determination Act was passed which allowed Native Americans to administer government funds allocated to them rather than having white people undertaking the administration.
Conclusion
At the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century, Native Americans have some measure of control over their own affairs but condition both on and off reservations remain problematic. Unemployment is above the national average, wage rates are low, much of the housing is sub-standard, infant mortality and incidence of Tuberculosis is above the national average, education attainment is low. Social problems exist in terms of alcohol and drug abuse, family breakdown, crime and high suicide rates, multiple depravation and a level of exclusion within today’s American society.
