Apollo was considered to be the protector of Pompeii in the pre-Roman period. Apollo’s temple was located next to the forum and was originally connected to this area by 11 large entrances many of which were closed after the construction of the Temple of Jupiter. The old temple no longer remains, the temple we see today was built upon the remains of this older building. Archaeologists have concluded that the original temple was built before Roman settlement. This conclusion comes from the fact that the entire temple is out of line to the rest of the Forum. This is clearly shown in footnote vi. The other temples of the Forum face in towards the forum, whilst the temple of Apollo runs parallel.
The State deities were represented in shrines within households and businesses often in their Hellenistic (Greek) forms. Mercury for instance is shown in the form of the Greek god Hermes, fitted with staff and moneybag. These images conveyed the owners’ personal desires of prosperity and the protection of the deities whose images they owned. “Religion in Pompeii, as in all ancient societies, encompassed a multiplicity of deities with different characters and different spheres of competence, and people could cultivate now one, now another, depending upon their personal preferences or upon the needs of the moment” (Ling, pg. 107).
In 1978 excavators found the remains of a young girl in the necropolis of Pompeii, hidden among the tombs. She had died suffocated by the gases that had spewed forth from the mouth of Vesuvius in 79AD clutching a small statue. The small statue she had with her was one of the Lares, or Penates. This was a domestic god, whom she may have worshipped in her house among family. The shrines of domestic gods were found within the kitchen, and in public parts of the house. The size of the shrine depended on the wealth of the family or business. If one could not afford to maintain a lararium there were public shrines to the so-called ‘little gods’. They were frequently represented in pairs of dancing figures in short tunics, offering wine. In many cases images of ancestors shared space with the Lares and Penates. After the eruption surviving citizens erected a temple, the Temple of the Lares on the site of the Forum. It was thought that widespread neglect of these gods had caused the eruption of Vesuvius.
Of all the mystery cults, the Cult of Isis claimed the largest following. As the patron of sailors, it is easy to see why a town that relied primarily on sea trade found the goddess an attractive choice. Although the cult was originally the favorite of slaves and freedmen, as it grew in popularity it also grew in wealth. The popularity of Isis was helped by her readiness to merge with other more traditionally established religions. Isis was a “giver of life, protector of the family, a goddess of healing and deliverance” (Ling, pg. 109). Adherents were not confined to one group. Slaves were allowed to join the cult and women were able to attain positions of power within the temple hierarchy. One third of the names in the cult inscriptions were female. Worshippers of Isis met at the temple twice a day for special services: at dawn to celebrate the rising of the sun, symbolising the rebirth of Osiris, and in the early afternoon for the ceremony of the water, where Nile water was blessed as the source of all life. On certain days of the year extravagant celebrations were held in her honour.
The most important of these celebrations was the navigium Isidis. This was a “feast to celebrate the opening of the navigation season after winter when Isis was venerated as the patron of sailors and seafarers” (Pedrazzi 172). Endnote ix is a fresco from Herculaneum, which shows a ceremony in progress. The high priest stands at the entrance to the temple and looks down on the ceremony beneath him, which is supervised by priests with shaven heads. One priest tends the sacred fire and another behind him leads the followers (gathered in two ranks) in worship. In the foreground of the painting three Ibis can be seen, sacred to Isis, and to the right is a flautist.
Like the other Temples of Pompeii, the Temple of Isis was destroyed in the earthquake of 62AD. It was restored quickly, and in fact was the only temple to be fully restored. An inscription identifies the funding to have been donated by the family of a freedman in the name of their six-year-old son, N. Popidius Celsinus. This type of grand gesture, along with the fact that the Temple of Isis was fully restored whilst all the other temples of the state religions were not, show the importance of the Cult of Isis in the region of Campania.
The only mystery cult to rival that of Isis was the Cult of Dionysus the god of wine. Dionysus’ devotees reveled in the consumption of wine and in the midst of drunken celebrations believed themselves to have been released from mortality. Celebrations typically involved a sacrifice, followed by extended periods of feasting and frenzied dancing. All this was preformed whilst followers drank sacramental wine. These orgiastic celebrations were frowned upon in Rome, but in Pompeii they were largely enjoyed. Almost 200 years earlier the Roman government tried to eradicate the Dionysian cult, executing all seven thousand of the exclusively female adherents. Years later men were encouraged to join the cult as popularity for the cult had declined.
Dionysian themes were popular throughout Pompeii and Herculaneum, with all manner of decorations adopting this hedonistic theme. Such an abundance of said decorations prove that the cult had not been eradicated, but merely revised by its followers to appear less conspiratorial or subversive to the state.
The Augustales were a college of priests of the deified Emperor Augustus. The priests maintained the Imperial cult in individual Roman towns. In Herculaneum they met in a shrine space, a large room with an enclosed niche, which probably held a statue of Augustus. The cult was founded by the Emperor Augustus as a way of allowing freedmen a role in civic life. Freedmen were barred from holding political posts or places in traditional Roman priesthoods. The imperial cult gave them a chance to contribute to the society that had freed them, to advance themselves and demonstrate their loyalty to the emperor. The shrine in Herculaneum was identified by an inscription that declared it sacred to Augustus. According the inscription, the dedication of the temple was marked with a banquet not only for the Augustales but also members of the local senate. This inclusion of traditional local dignitaries shows how wealthy freedmen could use the cult to make connections with the local ruling classes despite being barred from their institutions.
The Sacred area in Herculaneum occupied the other end of the seacoast terrace to the Suburban baths. This area contained two sacelli and was built over boathouses lining the ancient shore. The first sacellum was dedicated to Venus. In the second sacellum there are four relief images. These images are not the originals but rather modern copies put in place to ensure the safety of the originals. These depicted Minerva, Vulcan, Mercury and Neptune.
With such a diverse selection of religious influences ranging from all across the Roman Empire, it is no wonder that the people of Campania were turning increasingly to more exotic religions. Whilst the traditional pantheon of Roman gods, like the Capitoline Triad, Venus, Apollo, and the household gods, still held their place within the colonies of Pompeii and Herculaneum, newer and more appealing religions were quickly taking root within the area. The cult of Isis was at the peak of its popularity in 79AD, and the cult of Dionysus was rapidly gathering more followers. Whilst religious information on Herculaneum is scant at this current time, future archaeological excavations will most likely uncover this side of the ancient city and may reveal a religious community as diverse and enriched as that found in Pompeii at the time of its destruction.
While there is no archaeological evidence to prove the statement that the Capitoline Triad was worshipped within Herculaneum, every Roman colony was fitted with a temple dedicated to the Capitoline Triad. It is with this information that the assumption is made.
Temple of Jupiter (Pompeii) with the foundation, stairs and sacrificial alter clearly visible.
Temple of Jupiter Meilichios. Busts of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Juno and Minerva were found here, suggesting that whilst the slow restoration of the Temple of Jupiter was taking place, worship of the Capitoline Triad was held here.
Site of the Temple of Venus. As excavators found several uncut stones on the northern side of the site, it is assumed that restoration was underway.
Painting of Venus in a shell, found in the garden of the House of the Marine Venus.
Gilded image of Venus, her foot supported by Cupid, her arm leaning Priapus, a fertility god recognized by his oversized phallus that has broken off in this example.
Map of the Forum, with the Temple of Apollo outlined in purple. Note positioning of other building in relation to Forum.
These were the shrines to the Lares and Penates.
Painting of Lares and a Genius (advising spirit of the house) on the lararium in the House of the Vetti. The snake symbol seems to have represented a benevolent spirit protecting the house from evil.
The Temple of Isis today, compared to the image depicted in endnote ix.
Inscription reads “Numerius Popidius Celsinus, son of Numerius, paid for the Temple of Isis to be rebuilt from its foundations which had collapsed as a result of the earthquake. To repay his generosity, the decurions accepted him into their order free of charge although he was only six years old.”
This is one example of Dionysian art. This wall painting shows various aspects of the cult of Dionysus. Found in the Villa of the Mysteries.
Inscription plate in the College of the Augustales.
Bibliography
Books:
Birrel. Dr M, ‘Archaeological Diggings – The Temples Of Pompeii’ 2006
Connolly. P, ‘Pompeii’ – United Kingdom, 1976
Flaherty. T. H (Managing Editor) ‘Pompeii: The Vanished City’- Canada, 1992
Ling. R, ‘Pompeii – History, Life & Afterlife’ United Kingdom, 2005 reprinted 2007
Pedrazzi. T, ‘The Great Mysteries Of Archaeology – Pompeii’ United Kingdom, 2007
Roberts. P, ‘Excel HSC Ancient History Book 1’ Australia, revised 2005
Websites:
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_ZiGziSIuoGA/TM3kG9IbvnI/AAAAAAAABww/VKD0r9HqM_8/s1600/pompeii_art_lararia.jpg
http://class.lism.catholic.edu.au/ahist-dvd/ahist-hsc/Pompeii/site%20pages/7.source%20public3.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herculaneum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_(Pompeii)
http://members.virtualtourist.com/m/p/m/4816b0/
http://www.suite101.com/content/the-college-of-the-augustales-in-herculaneum-a108853