'To what extent, was the Black Civil Rights Movement successful in bringing about social and political change for Black Americans between 1880 and 1990'?

by r4h47 (student)

‘To what extent, was the Black Civil Rights Movement successful in bringing about social and political change for Black Americans between 1880 and 1990?’

Despite the 13th Amendment being passed in January 1865 declaring that slavery was illegal in the United States in reality it had no effect to solve racial issues as white superiority was maintained through legal loopholes. The creation of legally enforced segregated societies through the Jim Crow Laws treated Black Americans as second class citizens. Furthermore, the establishment of Black Codes in the Southern States were designed to keep the blacks inferior to whites economically, socially, politically and legally as they (1) ‘were excluded from occupations where they might be in competition with whites.’. In spite of this, Whites claimed that they saw Black Americans as ‘separate but equal, albeit the Supreme Court ruling that it was legitimate through the case of Plessey vs. Ferguson and ’this created a ’halfway house between slavery and freedom that satisfied no-one.’ The 15th Amendment gave black Americans the right to vote however due to ‘Literacy Tests,’ ‘Property Qualifications,’ and ‘Grandfather Clauses,’ it wasn’t feasible. Legal constraints were further aggravated and Southerners took this to advantage knowing that Federal authorities’ attitudes towards this cause were ambivalent.

The Civil Rights Act off 9 April 1866 was made as a response to Black Codes. This ensured that all citizens of the US would enjoy equal treatment under the law. However in reality this wasn’t the case as the whites argued that it gave no reference to the right to vote. (2) ‘At the same time that the amendment was passed Congress authorised segregated black and white schooling in Washington, DC.’ This summarised the fact that the Congress wasn’t in favour of social and political integration and was in a sense an obstacle in the way of black Americans obtaining civil rights. The Military Reconstruction Act of 1867 gave Blacks significant power and this can be supported by Johnson saying that the South was beginning to become Africanised. Education for Blacks improved during the reconstruction era however due to a lack of funding and intimidation of groups such as KKK meant that by 1877, there was still 80% illiteracy among African-Americans. Legalised segregation meant that it blacks were deprived (3) ‘of their hard-earned civil rights and created a radical caste system that was to last until the 1950’s.’

During the early 20th century key pioneers such as Washington, Dubois, Wells and Garvey began to emerge who sought about real change for the Civil Rights cause. Leadership qualities in Blacks were being showcased for the first time and they adopted different tactics to achieve the (4) ‘ultimate goal’ which was equality for Blacks. Ida B. Wells was a pioneer of the early struggle and consequently established one of the first black civil rights movements the NAACP. The NAACP was to become extremely influential in the future of black civil rights and therefore its establishment was a key factor for Black civil rights. In the case of Dubois his prestigious post, publications and aberrations that blacks were a chosen people with qualities increased Black pride. Washington focused on accommodationism and avoided protests and aggression ass it would lead to alienation of the Whites. Washington however was frequently criticised by fellow black figures such as W.E.B Du Bois, who criticised his ‘soft’ approach towards whites. Washington favoured (5) ‘separate but equal’ and believed that blacks had to improve their economic position first and then civil rights would come. On the other hand Dubois sought (5) ‘rapid integration,’ Washington through his work at Tuskegee, (7) ‘increased the self-confidence and economic opportunities’ of black Americans. Violent aspects such as lynching were opposed by Wells and were adopted by subsequent activists. Garvey was the first person to bring about a (8) ‘Black mass movement in the USA, emphasising racial pride, self-respect and self-reliance,’ and his work influenced radical leaders such as Malcolm X. These ideas to bring about equality set the foundation for future civil rights activism. Consequently, Black Americans on the whole began to realise that they had to fight to gain social and political change for Black Americans.

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World War One could be seen as one of the turning points of Black discrimination as black soldiers became aware of how civil rights were perceived in other nations. Returning black soldiers were now more politically conscious and were set to become more active in civil rights cause. The limited opportunities for Black economic advancement in the South lead to the ‘Great Migration.’ Over six million blacks migrated from the rural South to the great cities of the North. (9) ‘I should have been here 20 years ago. I just begin to feel like a man,’ showed how much of an impact the ‘Great Migration’ had on Black peoples lives. Blacks were now beginning to reap in the rewards of moving to the North and this was evident with an increase in wealth. Black people didn’t benefit from the economic boom prior to the Wall Street Crash which occurred in 1929 and this lead to the formation of the New Deal in 1933. This (10) ‘helped Blacks by providing one million jobs, nearly 50,000 public housing units and financial assistance and skilled occupations training for half a million Black youths.’ However the (11) ‘New Deal agencies often discriminated against Blacks especially in the South, but Blacks were getting more help and attention than ever before.’ The New Deal had clearly helped to improve social lives for Blacks as it helped to fight against poverty. Furthermore, political participation was increasing ever so more and this was primarily due to Roosevelt. Nearly 50 black Americans held relatively high positions in the federal bureaucracy which led to them being dubbed as the (12) ‘Black Cabinet.’ Also (13) ‘the increasing number of Northern Black Democrats eventually made Blacks a force to be reckoned within the Party, which proved vital in the future acquisition of civil rights’. Due to the fact that federal agencies were helping blacks rather than discriminating them this inspired black voters to vote for Roosevelt’s party and the increasing number of Northern black democrats eventually led to blacks being noticed within the party and led to a change in the political landscape.

Membership of the NAACP had significantly increased during World War Two from (14) ’50,000 to 450,000,’ which showed that Blacks were now increasing political activism as a result of political consciousness. Co-operation between the NAACP and trade unionists lead to some effective work on equal educational opportunities and voter registration. Blacks now realised that they were being treated in a similar way from that of Hitler and sought after radical change. This was done by campaigning for freedom and equality (15) ‘pointing out that the USA itself had not attained true democracy until all Southern blacks could vote.’ Demand for Black labour had increased due to Roosevelt setting up FEPC to promote equality in defence industries. This resulted in two million blacks being employed in the defence industry. Integration in the national defence sector showed that World War Two had a great influence to bring about positive social and political change as it was the era were civil rights campaigns were (16) ‘blossoming.’ However civil rights groups were more sceptical of their involvement in a national cause and this was focused through the greater grass roots consciousness of Black Americans by this time. The events which occurred in Little Rock led to Eisenhower enforcing federal power to eradicate social disintegration. This could be seen as a significant victory for black civil rights movement as it in a sense meant that racist hate wouldn’t be tolerated at all. Blacks now realised that genuine equality could be achieved but this would take time.

The successes which Black Civil Rights Movement had accomplished were hindered by cold war tensions. Strict laws introduced in the USA such as (17) ‘Tennessee introduced the death penalty for anyone who merely advocated communist ideas,’ indicated that Black revolution wouldn’t be tolerated. However some argue that (18) ‘Cold War tensions were a positive force.’ The Soviet Union competed to win the allegiance of (19) ‘newly independent black African nations and other developing countries,’ and America couldn’t let this happen as it would damage their reputation as leader of the Free World. America now gave domestic issues greater priority. This was evident with the case of Brown vs. Board of Education which lead to the Supreme Court permitting social integration of Blacks and Whites for the first time. The significance of this can be supported by the fact that (20) ‘rejection of the whole principle of segregation was only a matter of time.’ The political victory for NAACP long legal campaign against segregated education was significant as (21) ‘Brown seemed to remove all constitutional sanction for racial segregation by overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.’

King could be seen as making more of an impact on bringing about social and political changes ‘more than any President.’ The Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955 showed the ‘real start of the US civil rights movement.’ This occurred due to Parks resisting racism. As a result of black civil rights groups such as the NAACP effective techniques were used through the law courts ‘that had been developing for years.’ By November 1956 ‘King had acquired the status of a national celebrity,’ this gave the belief that Blacks could overcome problems which were due to social and political hindrance. Black unity was because of white extremism and this made them more determined to bring about social and political change. More importantly it helped King to form the SCLC in 1957 which later went on to become the most popular black civil rights movement in history. It was harder for Southern racists to attack a Church-dominated organisation such as SCLC. King’s main strategy was to attract national attention to racial inequality through non-violence. His march in Washington in which he demanded the vote for all blacks before a crowd of around 20,000 gained ‘maximum publicity for minimum work.’ Poor organisation and lack of mass support hindered its ‘crusade for citizenship.’ The sit-ins of 1960 ‘helped to erode Jim Crow,’ consequently leading to ‘one hundred and fifty cities soon desegregated various public places.’ These sit-ins generated ‘extensive coverage in the national news media, particularly on network television.’ The March on Washington DC to demand equal justice for all citizens under the law was a huge success for the civil rights movement as it brought about worldwide media coverage. King’s ‘speech of hope and determination epitomised the day’s message of racial harmony, love, and a belief that blacks and whites could live together in peace.’

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 specifically prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodation throughout the US and; ended ‘de jure segregation in the South.’ It was seen as a ‘major triumph for the civil rights movement’ though only social status was secured by this. However black disenfranchisement continued ‘in spite of Justice Department efforts to use litigation to expand voting rights.’ The Selma Match was a pivotal moment in the struggle to bring about social and political change for blacks in the United States. Consequently, Johnson stated to the Congress that ‘there is no negro problem’ but there is an ‘American problem’. Voting Rights Act was secured by 1965 and this enforced the 15th Amendment of 1869. ‘Johnson and Congress probably would not have delivered the Voting Rights Act without Selma,’ showed how it was ‘the movement’s finest hour.’ However, this was to an extent only short term success. As a result of this the number of African-American registered voters increased immediately. ‘Within a year there were more than 230,000 new black voters throughout America, and the number continued to rise in subsequent decades.’ However, many blacks continued to go through economic and social deprivation through a lack of ‘poor housing, poor schools, poor job opportunities and an inability to get out of the poverty trap.’

The death of King, consequently lead to the development what become known as the black power movement in the 1960’s. Black radicalism was necessary to combat de factor segregation. Malcolm X stated that to the white man that he was ‘the alternative to Dr King.’ Malcolm X could be seen as having an influence on improving ghetto life in the US. He was seen as a role model, inspiration and icon for discontented ghetto blacks. From the 1960’s onwards there was a period of stagnation and decline. In the North there was inner city deprivation and in the South to some extent Jim Crow existed.

In conclusion, the Black Civil Rights Movement was catalysed by WW2. However, there was resistance to bring about political and economic change due to southern pressures through White supremacy and Jim Crow laws. Furthermore, King could be seen as having a great impact ‘…as a national spokesperson in 1955 and his death thirteen years later in 1968 are usually seen as marking the beginning and the end of the postwar civil rights movement.’ However some argue that without King, Blacks would have gone through the period of social and political change because of ‘the culmination of growing black consciousness and protests at grassroots level that dated back to the 1930s and 1940s,’ due to the preaching of Malcolm X.