With the introduction of a new monarch, Edward V1, more changes were detectable. Cranmer played a major role in transforming England into a Protestant country by 1553. Edward’s advisors were in a similar financial situation to Henry V111, and therefore the dissolution of the Chantries began in towns, and therefore the continuity of dismantling the Roman Catholic faith progressed. Cranmer continued in his quest for a protestant England, issuing the English Book of Homolies and the first English Prayer Book (Book of Common Prayer). These were drastic changes yet there is an underlying continuity with some of Henry V111’s policies. Relations between the church and parliament improved and in 1549 an act was passed allowing the clergy to marry. The removal of Roman Catholic traditions continued and by 1553 England was a Protestant country, however, the enthusiasm of the people was hard to judge, and many remained loyal to their Catholic faith.
Mary 1 became queen in 1553, and with her strong Catholic faith it was not long before England’s national religion was changed and restored to Catholicism. Parliament repealed all of Edward V1’s reforms, restoring Latin services and orthodox masses and Papal headship over the church. This was a huge superficial change, yet the majority of the population had remained true to the Catholic faith, and it is therefore hard to measure the amount of change the general population would have felt. In 1554 the clergy underwent more change and were told to either give up their wives or resign. 1555 bought about a drastic change as Mary’s devotion to Catholicism led to the burning of 280 Protestants (including Cranmer). By the end of Mary’s reign it was evident that her strong catholic belief had been the force behind the Catholic restoration.
The reign of Elizabeth 1 put England back into Protestantism (and Elizabeth herself as head of the English church), yet it was far more relaxed with heresy laws being repealed and replaced with a fine. The clergy were once again allowed to marry. One of the most significant changes was the fact Elizabeth was excommunicated by the pope in 1570. However, there is some continuity in that Henry V111 underwent a similar treatment. Elizabeth was far more tolerant of the Roman Catholic faith, and this was a totally new a refreshing concept introduced at the end of the Tudor period.
Religion throughout the Tudor period switched between Protestantism and Catholicism depending on the monarch, and this was especially noticeable around the middle of the Tudor age. However one may argue that the changes, although frequent, were only between two religions, and therefore there remained an element of continuity.
Foreign affairs throughout the Tudor period were also dependable on the character of the monarch as well as outside factors and European monarchs. Henry V11 adopted a defensive foreign policy from the start. He also recognised the importance marriage could play in securing trade with other countries. In 1489, a trade treaty was signed with Brittany, and the arranged marriage between Arthur and Catherine of Aragon would secure friendly relations with Spain. In July 1489 peace with France was agreed. The invasion of England by Scots, 1496, meant Henry had to take defensive measures which came in the form of a marriage between Princess Margaret to James 1V of Scotland. Henry’s practical attitude to marriage and foreign affairs was made clear by the death of Arthur (soon after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon) in 1502. Prince Henry and Catherine were betrothed in 1503. The first change of the Tudor period was in 1504, when Henry signed an anti-French alliance with Spain and the Netherlands.
The reign of Henry V111 varied considerable compared to that of Henry V11. In 1510, the Anglo-French truce was renewed, and although this was a continuation of his father’s defensive measures it was not to last. Henry soon adopted an aggressive foreign policy leading to the capture of Therouanne and Tournai in 1513. However, one year on and Henry had changed his policy again signing the Anglo-French peace treaty. Henry V11’s attempts to secure peace with Scotland, through the marriage of 1503, were quashed in 1513 in the Battle of Flodden. In 1521, Henry signed the Treaty of Bruges with the Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V), and by 1522 was at war with France again. However this aggressive foreign policy was not to last as the crown’s funds were soon exhausted. England was therefore forced to seek peace with France in 1525 with the Treaty of the More. However in 1529 England was isolated yet again, being left out of the Treaty of Cambrai. Bad relations with Scotland remained a continuity however, marked by a successful invasion in 1541. Henry was to continue his foreign policy in the same confusing manner. The Anglo-Imperial peace treaty of 1543 lead to was against France in 1544 and the end of the Treaty. This is another continuity of Henry’s aggressive foreign policy. His last change in terms of foreign policy was to make peace with France for one more time in the treaty of 1545, Peace of Andres.
Mary 1 was quite a tactile monarch when it came to foreign policy. She married Philip 11 of Spain in 1554. To Mary, Phillip epitomised Spain and Catholicism, as well as a the link in securing trade between England and Spain. In 1555, Mary held back from supporting Phillip in his attempt to go to war against France. However, when it came to religious matters she soon changed her mind and declared war. An English Protestant had declared himself ‘Protector of England’. Mary’s reign was fairly continuous with that of her predecessor, in that she was back at was with an old enemy, France, and that she had used the same technique of her grandfather (Henry V11) when it came to practical marriages.
Elizabeth 1 continued her grandfathers’ policy of a defensive foreign policy. Her ultimate policy was security against foreign invasion. In 1572 she made a defensive alliance with France in the Treaty of Blois. In 1585 the Anglo-Spanish was started which went on until 1604. Elizabeth continued volatile relations with both England’s old enemies, yet unlike many of her predecessors she avoided war at all costs, and upheld a defensive foreign policy.
The Tudor period was full of change yet there remained an element of continuity in that England was with or against her two main European counterparts, France and Spain. Nearly all the monarchs married for practical or diplomatic reasons, and most of them were defensive in their polices. However, it is the individual personalities of the Tudor monarchs that adds change throughout the Tudor period. Henry V111 was very aggressive, striving to be ‘the warrior king’ and therefore saw many wars fought, and treaties with different sides signed. The rest were more defensive. Like foreign policy, religion swapped back and forth between Catholicism and Protestantism, only adding more change to the Tudor period.
