Arousal theories.

When preparing for a highly active performance (race) and high arousal is to be met, the body needs to ensure that it can meet all the physiological demands that may be placed on it, e.g.

> Muscles- need to be supplied with blood sugars and oxygen etc.

> The sympathetic system of the autonomous nervous system (ANS) i.e. the glands, hormonal and endocrine systems (help prepare and maintain body for action).

> Parasympathetic of the ANS- works to restore the body's resources for future use.

> The reticular activating system (RAS) - part of the ascending structure of the spinal cords link to the fore brain. It is responsible for maintaining the general level of arousal in the body.

There has been a trend in Psychologists' interest into arousal- the relationship between the physiological aroused state and the experience of associated emotions. High intense exercise e.g. playing football or basketball are associated with all the symptoms of a highly aroused state e.g. high levels of adrenaline, increased heart rate etc. Aroused states can equally be associated with the emotional states of fear, anger, apprehension, tension, worry, and anxiety. Some evidence indicates that these emotional states are reciprocal, i.e. one affecting the other and vice versa.

Research has also shown that levels of arousal can affect perception, attention and movement control. 'As a learner's/ performer's levels of arousal are important it must be equally important that they have the appropriate levels of arousal in order to promote effective concentration, attention and decision making levels to produce optimum performance' (sport and PE- Wesson, Wiggins, Thompson, and Hartigan). Teachers and coaches have been aware of the importance for performers to be mentally prepared and alert for a long time. If arousal becomes too high, the performer can become anxious, and equally, if the level is too low they may become bored and de-motivated- both of these resulting in a negative effect on learning and performance.

Drive theory

Research carried out by Hull in 1943, and then later modified in 1966 by J Spence and K Spence suggests that the more aroused the sports performer was the better they would perform. The relationship between arousal and performance is linear (performance increases in proportion to arousal). A very high arousal level would result in a high performance level.

This view was later adapted by further research by Spence and Spence- this can be expressed in an equation: -

P=H x D

Performance = habit strength x drive

Hull saw drive as being equal with arousal, and habit strength was seen as the learned response or performance behaviour. It is a theory related to learning.

The inverted 'U' theory

This theory is more popular among sports psychologists, although it does have drawbacks due to its simplicity. It was first put forward by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) and has since been applied to sports situations. This theory suggests that as the level of arousal increases, so does the level of performance- but only to an optimum point, which usually occurs at moderate arousal level. Once past this point, performance decreases (performers may become anxious if they are over aroused and their performance usually suffers.

This theory fits many observations of sports performers, although it needs modification to apply it to different activities, skill levels and personalities.

Activities-

Movement

Arousal level for optimum performance

Example

Fine controlled

Fairly low

Pistol shooters, archery

Gross

Fairly high

Weightlifting

Skill levels-

If the performer is highly skilled, many of their actions need little conscious attention and they can therefore cope with higher levels of arousal. If the performer has low skill levels, they will need to attend to many details related to movement and will need to consciously process much more information. If the arousal level is even moderate, a novice may lose concentration or become anxious, and so a low level of arousal is likely to produce optimum performance.

Personality-

Personality types who enjoy high levels of excitement and are generally more extrovert can cope in a high arousal situation. People who are more introverted are generally likely to perform better under low arousal conditions.

Catastrophe theory

This theory believes that as arousal increases there is a dramatic drop in performance. We see many top sports people 'go to pieces' in the big events.

The theory takes into account that our anxiety can be of two types:

. Somatic anxiety- anxiety experienced physiologically e.g. sweating

2. Cognitive anxiety- anxiety experienced by the mind e.g. worrying about failing

These interact with each other.