One of the reasons we classify components is so we can improve individual components in order to improve the quality of a skill. Practices can be structured to develop these components usually by isolating the component. When teaching a skill various methods are used verbal instructions, demonstrations, video’s, diagrams and photo’s are good methods to use when trying to learn the required technique.
Fitts and Posner (1967) suggest that learning is sequential, we move through different phases as we learn.
There are three main stages to learning a new skill…
- “Cognitive phase - Identification and development of the component parts of the skill - involves formation of a mental picture of the skill”
- “Associative phase - Linking the component parts into a smooth action - involves practicing the skill and using feedback to perfect the skill”
- “Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic - involves little or no conscious thought or attention whilst performing the skill - not all performers reach this stage”
(http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/tech.htm)
To learn a skill a combination of movements need to be assembled using feedback to refine the action. The movements must be repeated correctly in order to improve the quality of the skill. In a practice, the skill would be broken down into individual components. An example for the badminton drop shot would be…
- Feet position.
- Movement to the pitch of the ball-maintaining feet positioning
- The position of the hand/racquet prior to the shot.
- The completed shot and the outcome.
The Associative and autonomous phases hinges on practice and development.
Adam’s closed theory has two elements, perceptual trace and memory trace. The key feature to this theory is feedback. It is suggested that Adam’s closed theory is…”The process of analysing the reference model actions, the result of those actions and the desired goals then the reference model can be refined to produce the required actions to achieve the desired goals.”
(http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/tech.htm)
“Adams (1971), in discussing closed loop theory, suggested that as a particular movement is reinforced during learning, it is stored in the long term memory as a ‘memory trace’.”
(Physical Education and the study of sport, 1991, Davis et al)
(PICTURE P291 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND THE STUDY OF PE)
Adam’s closed theory is designed to provide the best possible learning environment. When practicing in a closed loop, the performer should have affixed practice, which can be performed repetitively. This should allow the development of technique with the aid of intrinsic and extrinsic feedback. The performer should begin to understand the requirements; therefore an element of consistency should develop. An example of a skill being developed in a closed environment is the badminton drop shot; for this particular movement taking it out of a game situation isolates the skill. A partner feeds the shuttlecock into a certain area; the performer knowing where the shuttlecock is going can easily move in and perform the shot.
Technique drills should relate to the specific needs of the individual. The drill should be designed to work on aspects of technique or to correct a fault. When considering football as an example, passing drills are designed to work on specific aspects of the pass. The drill may be developed to work on the lofted pass or a pass with the side of the foot. Quite often during a coaching drill, the coach may alter aspects to enhance the practice. The coach does so through visual feedback. (Advanced PE for Edexcel).
“Fundamental to the athletes long term development is the learning of sound technique. The coach directs such learning and works towards stability of technique through technical training. The classification of technique determines its course of development but, broadly speaking, coaching methodology is geared to various learning stages.”
(Sports Training Principals, Frank W. Dick, 2002)
Both examples suggest that technique training requires stages of development. The sources suggest that the foundations must be laid before any advanced coaching of technique can take place.
After studying each of these components in detail, practices could be structured to improve individual components and hence the overall quality of the skill. The study will examine practices from three types of sport team, racquet and individual.
To develop a structured practice a skill classification continuum will be used.
“Structuring the practice environment may require us to change the classification from one end of the continuum to the other in order to maximise skill development.”
(AD, HSFC, 2002)
When structuring a racquet practice, studying the drop shot in badminton as an example, practical experience shows that more basic you can make the skill the easier it is to learn. To begin with the practice would begin in closed environment to enable fixed practice and repetition of the same movement. There would be no opposition/pressure. The performer would be fed the shuttlecock into a designated area to maintain consistency; feedback via a partner or coach would develop the movement.
Once the basic movement has been mastered in the extreme closed environment, an element of competition (pressure/time) can be introduced to develop an element of reality. In the badminton practice this may involve the performer running to the pith of the shuttlecock. The feeder changing the flight of the shuttlecock and varying the position from one side of the net to the other may introduce an element of decision-making.
The skill may then be moved into a conditioned game in which points are used to score but scoring via the drop shot may be worth five points to encourage using the learned skill. This requires a greater amount of decision-making; the performer has to decide when the shot is appropriate in relation to the pitch of the ball and stage in the match. This stage allows practice and refinement of the skill.
The skill is then moved into an open environment, with a competitive edge. The outcome of the skill becomes important; a pressure situation shouldn’t influence the technique.
The basic structure of skill development is the same for every sport. A skill developed in a closed environment is gradually integrated into a full game situation.
Using chipping in golf as an example of an individual activity, the skill is placed into a closed environment this provides the environment for consistency. Repetition is then used to work on the technique. The golfer may begin chipping balls into a bucket in a sports hall. Extrinsic feedback via a coach and the outcome of the movement is used to measure the quality and development of the skill. The technique can be adjusted to improve the quality of the skill
The skill would then be placed into a more realistic situation (taken onto a practice range aiming for the pin), pressure would be increases and the result of the movement would be meaningful. There would be more emphasis on decision-making e.g. where to pitch the ball in relation to the hole/gradient of the green.
The skill would then be placed into a conditioned situation; the position of the ball may be altered, obstructions may be introduced and the weather/speed of the green would need to be taken into account but the same chipping action would be used to play the shot. This should make the performer take decisions, as well as understanding tactics and technical play. Refinement of technique should still take place at this point.
Finally the skill would be placed into application in a full game, the result of the shot is more meaningful in a competitive situation. The performer has to analyse performance and the type of shots required.
Using passing in football as an example, the skill must be isolated e.g. the lofted pass. The skill must then be taken out of a game situation and put into a closed situation. The basic skill is… “strike low down on the ball to generate lift, and to lean back slightly. Beginners sometimes find it difficult to balance properly, and it is important not to fall too far to the side as you kick. Using the non-kicking foot as a firm anchor, and putting your opposite arm out for balance will help.”
(www.mastersport.co.uk/soccerskills.htm)
Once the skill has been perfected in the closed environment using feedback and continuous practice it can then be moved into a conditioned game situation. An example of this might be…
Team one and three are in possession of a ball. Team one has to pass it to team three and then team three back to team one. While the teams successfully complete passes they remain in possession of the ball. Team two are the interceptors, four players are designated to close down and the rest remain in zone 2. Two for team one’s square and two for team three’s square. The interceptors are only allowed in when the team gains control of the ball. Once the ball is intercepted or sliced out of the game area. The team that loose possession swap roles with the interceptors. This game encourages accurate lofted passes and to keep possession of the ball.
Once the players become competent at such a game, the skill can be put into a full match. This is a pressure situation in the extreme open environment. At this stage the coach can evaluate the effectiveness of his coaching and determine if further aspects of the skill need work.
In conclusion, this study has shown…
- The less information given, the easier a skill is to learn.
- A closed loop environment provides the best learning environment; it provides the foundations for fixed practice and repetition.
- Feedback is essential to developing the basics of a skill. If the basic technique isn’t correct then the skill is impossible to master
- A coach should structure a practice in stages. Starting off with a solid foundation and then building on that.
- A practice can be adjusted for improvement, it doesn’t have to be set in stone
- Developing a skill using the skill continuum is an effective way of structuring practice.
- That whatever the type of sport and skill involved. The components of skills are similar and practices can be structured in very similar ways to develop the components of a skill.
- Teaching styles can be adapted depending on the performer. A coach needs to evaluate the effectiveness of his/her methods. E.g. a more experienced performer can understand more complex feedback.
