Gender, Exercise and Sporting Performance

AS and A Level Physical Education (Sport & Coaching)

Task B3

Males and females rarely compete against each other in a sporting context. Aside from the obvious differences between genders there are a range of physiological differences that mean one gender would have an unfair advantage over the other. Hence the need for single sex competition.

Females have some essential differences from males with regard to sports performance and this to some extent explains the differences between the sexes in terms of physical ability. Sociological thinking tends towards an increasing tendency for equality with females taking on more traditional male roles and the differences between the sexes are closing.

Body Size

The female skeleton is on average smaller and lighter than a male skeleton. Female skeletons have shorter appendicular components which will results in a smaller height and weight when compared to males. These skeletal differences have many implications not all of them disadvantageous. For example smaller lighter and shorter bones are helpful in events such as gymnastics when performances demand balance flexibility and agility. By contrast male gymnastics events make primary use of strength and explosive speed.

Body composition

One of the main differences between the genders that affect athletic performance is the difference in body composition. Males tend to have greater muscle mass and lower fat mass compared with females. A high percentage of body fat is not always a hindrance in sport. As females have a greater percentage of fat than males they are more buoyant (muscle mass weighs much more than body fat) so they use up less energy than males staying afloat. Therefore using the same amount of energy females will be able to swim faster than males. This together with the increased insulation from the cold makes females more suited to open-water swimming such as swimming the channel.

Muscle Mass

There is no difference between male and female muscle mass. Skeletal muscle is composed of the same components and those muscles respond and perform in exactly the same way. The main reason females do not develop skeletal muscles of a similar size to males is due to the presence of higher oestrogen levels in most females. Oestrogen deters skeletal muscle from becoming large and bulky. Males on the other hand have large levels of testosterone which allows them to build skeletal muscle mass more easily and in greater quantities.

The difference in physical size and ...

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Muscle Mass

The difference in physical size and hormone levels is a significant factor because as a result females have muscles with smaller cross-section then males.

Muscle mass is closely related to muscular strength and muscle mass for females is approximately 20 per cent less then for males. When comparing the muscular strength of males and females, males are naturally stronger than females in all muscle groups.

Given the smaller muscle mass of females there is less phosphagen available for maximal muscle contractions. Therefore the peak power on average is approximately 20 per cent less for females.

Males tend to exhibit 50 per cent more upper body strength then females. Overall the typical female’s total body strength represents about two thirds of a typical male.

Testosterone Levels

Testosterone is the male sex hormone and is ultimately responsible for the grater concentration of muscle mass in males. This comes about through increased muscle hypertrophy which ultimately leads to an increase in muscular strength.

Females on the other hand have far less testosterone in their systems and much more oestrogen. Oestrogen is the hormone responsible for female sexual characteristics and is thought to be linked with grater concentration of body fat in the female body. This higher concentration of body fat generates a longer term energy store than can prove beneficial during training.

Haemoglobin levels

Males have slightly higher concentrations of haemoglobin in their blood than females. In theory therefore, males have increased capacity for oxygen delivery to the working muscles.

Maximal oxygen consumption

An untrained male will have an average absolute VO2 max of 3.5 litres per minute. An untrained female will have an average absolute VO2 max of 2 litres per minute which is 43 per cent less than a male. The main reason for this difference is that males are usually bigger than females and the difference in body composition between the genders. Females have approximately 10 per cent more body fat than males which will reduce their VO2 max because fat mass hinders performance. Research has shown that a female heart is slightly smaller relative to body size then the male heart. A relatively smaller heart would mean that a female’s stroke volume is relatively lower than males. As cardiac output is the product of heart rate multiplied by stroke volume, for a female to maintain a certain cardiac output her heart must be faster then a males.

Q= HR X SV

Therefore body size and fat percentage, the difference in oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, plus differences in the size of the heart might explain the gender differences in VO2 max.

Thermoregulation

The greatest difference in thermoregulation between males and females is sweating. Females generally sweat less then males because they start to sweat at higher skin and core temperatures. Despite a lower sweat output females show heat tolerance similar to that of men and this is largely due to the fact that females rely more on circulatory mechanisms for heat dissipation whereas males make greater use of convection and evaporation. The reliance on a lower sweat output allows females greater protection from dehydration during exercise at higher temperatures.

Their relatively large surface area to mass ratio means females have a greater surface area exposed to the environment. Therefore under similar heat conditions women will tend to cool quicker than males though their smaller body mass across a relatively large surface area. Males on the other hand have a smaller surface area to mass ratio given their greater concentration of skeletal muscle tissue.

Flexibility

Flexibility is an important component of fitness that has many contributory factors. It is affected by the composition of a given joint, the length and position of tendons and ligaments and the elasticity of both the muscle tissue and skin. Females tend to be more flexible then males.

Training differences

Most studies have come to the conclusion that there are few differences between the training responses of males and females undertaking similar activities. However, given the physiological differences between males and females there are other factors which may influence training that merit further discussion.

Men risk greater trauma in sporting contests through their genitalia, and the reproductive physiology of female athletes can be susceptible to the stress of competition and training. Exercise can affect menstruation, particularly among females involved in high intensity training and competition sports (such as long distance running, gymnastics and swimming).

For example female athletes can develop amenorrhea (an abnormal cessation of menstruation) during training and competition. Excessive weight loss through reduction in body fat is believed to be one of the major causes of amenorrhea among female athletes. Menstruation can also lead to iron deficiency in certain cases. Under these conditions there may not be the full oxygen-binding capacity within the haemoglobin levels in a given volume of blood. This may have a detrimental effect on aerobic performance so training adaptations or iron supplementation may be required.

Recovery Periods

Recovery periods are largely dependent on an individual’s level of fitness regardless of gender. However females have a tendency to have a slightly lower haemoglobin count than males which may lessen female recovery rates as glycogen levels are topped up (skeletal muscle, liver, kidneys and brain) and any muscle tissue damage is repaired after exercise.

Anaerobic capacity

Short term high intensity exercises that involve anaerobic power often show a significant difference between the capabilities of both male and female athletes.

On the whole male athletes have far greater capacity for anaerobic power. This is due to a number of factors including increased body composition, muscular strength, neuro-muscular factors and of course all these factors use ATP.

Aerobic capacity

Aerobic capacity is particularly important for endurance athletes and an increased aerobic capacity will eventually lead to an increase in VO2 maximum.

Females have lower natural haemoglobin counts, which means the oxygen carrying capabilities of their blood are less than those of males. However, trained females are successful in certain endurance based events. The fact that females carry more fat tissue than males means for trained athletes that there is an additional fuel supply on hand in greater quantities than in males. This will ultimately be of benefit in endurance based events.

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