Gross motor activity- this should involve all the major muscle groups and acts as both pulse and respiratory rate raiser. There should be some gentle mobilisation of the joints to loosen and lubricate them by the secretion of synovial fluid. This should last 5-10 minutes.
Flexibility activities- to warm, loosen and relax muscles by increasing blood flow and general preparatory stretching. This should last 10-15 minutes and should consist of different types of stretching, as this will reduce muscle stiffness by contracting eccentrically and concentrically.
Activity or sport specific exercises- these should ling to the demands of the activity, this should be 5-10 minutes long to prepare the athlete full for the task ahead.
The reasons for warming up are:
Reduce the risk of injury
Reduce muscle stiffness
Speed up the contractions in the muscles
Increase body temperature
Increase flexibility
Increase flow of oxygen to working muscles
Mental preparation
During my warm up I will make sure that I do a light jog, at 45%-50% of my maximum heart rate, when I can to warm up and raise my heart rate. This will normally involve jogging round the pitch 2 or 3 times. I will then do some active and dynamic stretching, holding for 8-10 seconds, followed by some ballistic stretching such as lunges and squats. I will then follow this with some heel flicks and knee raise with a few sprints over 15-20 meters. We will then go into a few hockey related exercises such as 2 on 1 or a shooting drills.
Warm down
Similar to the warm up the warm/ cool down is also a very important aspect of the training and any physical activity. The warm down bridges the gap between intense work and complete rest. Without a warm down the muscles will feel sore and achy which may lead to a delay in the PEP.
A cool down is “the process of gentle exercise and stretching which keep the capillaries open and flush away waste products as part of the recovery after intensive exercise. (Advanced pe for edexcel)
A cool down should consist of active recovery exercises decreasing intensity and stretches which should be mainly active. In a cool down you should have:
5-10 minutes of CV- this decreases the body’s temperature and removes waste products from the working muscles; an important one of these is lactic acid.
5-10 minutes of static stretching- this is to increase the range of movement, remove waste products and to relax the muscles.
The reasons for cooling down are:
Aids removal of waste products.
Reduces the potential for Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness.
Reduces the level of adrenaline in the blood.
Mentally prepare the athlete for the next training session.
By doing a cool down it will allow me to relax from the hard work and restore my body to its resting sate. It should allow me to continue with my programme without taking more recovery time than I need; as it should have removed most of the waste products including lactic acid which be the main waste product that I should be worried about, as if I lt it build up it could lead to cramp then DOMS.
For my cool down I will slowly jog for 5-10 minutes round the pitch, gentle slowing down to a walking pace and when I feel that my heart and breathing rates are back down to normal, I will then stop and statically stretch all of the muscles that I have used in the session.
The Cardio-Vascular Respiratory system
The main responsibilities for the CVR system are the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles and the removal of waste products. The cardiac and respiratory system work together to ensure that the body can meet the demands of the exercise. The CV system is composed of the heart, blood vessels and the cells and plasma that make up the blood. The 3 types of blood vessels are:
Capillaries- narrow, thin-walled blood vessels that form networks within the tissues
Veins- the efferent blood vessel that return the blood to the heart.
Arteries- the afferent blood vessels that carry the blood away from the heart.
These 3 blood vessels transport the blood to and from the heart, taking out oxygenated blood, and returning with deoxygenated blood. The principal function of the heart is to continuously pump blood around the CV system. It receives both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres which alter the rate of the beat.
(http://www.heartzine.com/circulatory-system.jpg)
During m exercise programme I expect to improve my CV endurance which means that my CV system will have to improve and become more efficient. This will happen because adaptations will occur through training.
The adaptations that occur to the CV system through training are:
An increase in capillarisation in the muscle tissue and greater opening of the existing capillaries.
Cardiac hypertrophy, meaning that the heart gets bigger in size and stronger, allowing more blood to be pumped out per beat, increasing cardiac output.
Resting heart rate decreases.
Increased lung capacity leading to more efficient respiration (you can breathe deeper and slower.)
Increased capillary network in the lungs
Respiratory muscles get stronger increasing tidal volume.
Increase in ability to work at a higher percentage of your VO2 max without reaching your lactate threshold. (OBLA)
Muscles
Although I am aiming to improve my CV endurance, I will be using certain muscles more than others, thus meaning that over time these muscles will become more defined and have several adaptations happen. This will help improve my performance as these muscles will be stronger and be able to perform for longer.
As a hockey player, there is a lot of running and changing direction for the ball, thus meaning that the muscles in my legs will be used a lot more than others and will improve their muscular endurance.
Because these muscles are the main muscles that I will be using, as they improve so will my performance. I should be able to run for longer and change direction quicker as the muscles will take longer to fatigue.
The highlighted muscles are the muscles that should improve during the programme.
Diet
During this exercise programme what I eat will be a very important factor to how I perform on each session. I will need to make sure that I always have enough energy for the activity at hand. We need energy in order for all our energy systems to be working to their full potential. As I am trying to improve my CV endurance I will be using all 3 of my main systems, these being my; PC system, lactic acid and aerobic systems. From what I know about these systems I can plan a diet for the programme.
I know that the fuel that I need for my PC system to work is phosphor-creatin I will make sure that I have a good store from the food that I eat. I know that in the lactic acid and aerobic system the fuel that is used is glycogen / glucose. I will ensure that I have a constant supply of glycogen by eating the right foods that supply it.
There are 7 important nutrients that I will need to include in my diet:
Carbohydrate
Proteins
Fibre
Fats
Minerals and vitamins
Water
(Carbohydrates are the most important component of my diet so will explain more here. For information on the others see appendix 1.)
Carbohydrates
There are two types of carbohydrates; simple sugars such as sugar which is found in most foods such as fruits, jam, biscuits and cakes, and complex sugars known as starch, which is commonly found in food such as vegetables, rice, bread, cereals, potatoes and pasta. Carbohydrates supply a vital source of energy for the body. The body stores carbohydrates as glycogen in the muscles mainly and in the liver. When this fuel is needed for energy, the body then converts the glycogen to glucose via glycolsis so that the body is then able to use the glucose for energy. As I am aiming to improve my endurance I will have a high level of carbohydrates in my diet as I need a high level of glycogen to ensure I have a constant supply of energy. However as I am constantly exercising rather than training for a specific even I will not need to carbo-load as it will be more beneficial to me if I have a constant supply of carbohydrates.
Appendix 1
Proteins
Proteins are mostly found in red meat, eggs, nuts and pulses. We need protein to help build and repair damaged muscles. Protein builds and repair muscles and tissues either from injury or adaptations from exercise. In extreme cases protein can supply the body when all the glycogen stores have been used up. During exercise protein supplies less than 5% of the energy the body uses, but this can increase to 10% when the glycogen stores are empty. Too much protein in the body can cause dehydration and muscles heaviness, which can be a problem for an athlete. I will ensure that I have a good supply of protein, although it will not be my main focus of the diet unless an injury occurs or I encounter DOMS during the programme, as this will help the repair process.
Fats
Like carbohydrates, fats are made up of two types; saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fats are mostly products that are produced by animals such as cream and butter; too much of this type of fat could be a danger to an athlete’s health as it increases the body’s cholesterol level. Unsaturated fats include mainly plant products and fish such as corn nuts and soya beans. Fats are again a vital source of energy and are also good for building up the body. Eating too much fat can cause major problems to the body as fats have been proven to be related to heart problems and some cancers.
Fibre
Fibres are not an important factor for my exercise programme, as it does not benefit the performer in anyway.
Water
Water is an important nutrient for the athlete. Athletes should start and even hydrated and replace as much lost fluid as possible by drinking chilled liquids at frequent intervals during the event. Chilled fluids are absorbed faster and help lower body temp.
Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins are nutrients that everyone needs in small amounts for the body to work properly. Different vitamins have different functions. For example, some enzymes need particular vitamins to work. Your body can't make most vitamins apart from vitamin D, so you have to get them from the food you eat. There are two types of vitamins:
water-soluble vitamins - these cannot be stored in your body and need to be replaced regularly in your diet
fat-soluble vitamin - these can be stored in your body, but should still be part of a healthy diet
Water-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins B6, B12, C and folic acid) are found in fresh fruit and green vegetables.
Minerals and trace elements are inorganic elements that are needed in small amounts for your body to function. They are as essential as vitamins and your body needs to get them from the food you eat. For example, you need:
Calcium to make strong bones
Sodium for fluid balance and nerve function
Iron for oxygen transport in the blood and energy metabolism
Iodine for thyroid hormone function
Minerals and trace elements are mainly found in meat, cereals, fish, milk and dairy foods, vegetables, dried fruit and nuts.
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Considering the nutritional factors of each component I have planned a simple before and after diet plan.
Before
Eat a meal at least 3 hours before exercising to allow our body time for digestion.
Avoid eating simple sugars because they will increase my insulin levels, which reduces my blood glucose level, which will make me fatigue quicker.
Drink lots of water to avoid dehydration.
Drink a glucose filled drink (e.g. lucozade) to ensure my glucose levels are high.
During
Water is vital; we need up to 5 litres of water a day t keep us healthy. At times of vigorous exercise especially in hot weathers and indoors the need can increase significantly, so I will have to make sure that I have a constant supply of water, whilst exercising.
After
I will try to eat a carbohydrate rich meal within 3 hours of my exercise.
I will also drink plenty of water to replace lost fluids.
Energy systems
I will be using all 3 of the energy systems in my training sessions, but the most important is the aerobic system. (For more detail on others see appendix 2)
The aerobic system
The aerobic system is the last system to be introduced during an activity as long as it is over 3 minutes long; it takes the body this long to use the aerobic system because the body has to go through a number of chemical reactions before it is able to use oxygen. The aerobic system can only be used with the presence of oxygen; this means that we can use these systems as long as our bodies can physically move. During the aerobic system the body resynthesises 36 ATP molecules meaning that the body is always supplied with a lot of energy until the glycogen stores deplete, then the body cannot use anymore fuel for energy, in extreme circumstances, the athlete can use protein as a source of energy. The aerobic system is made up of two stages, the Krebs cycle which produces 2 ATP and the electro transport chain which produces 34 ATP molecules. There is no harmful by-products produced when using the aerobic system, the only pain that the athlete may feel will come from fatigue and DOMS.
During a game of hockey the 2 main energy systems that an athlete would use, would be the PC and aerobic system. The lactic acid system would not really be used as you never really have to work under high intensity for up to 3 minutes. This is a benefit to me within my sport as I don’t have the chance o build up lactic acid, which would a huge disadvantage to my performance.
As I am hoping to improve my CV endurance, I will mostly be using my aerobic system in my training, because I will be working at a low intensity for long periods of time.
Appendix 2
The phosphocreatine (PC) system
This is the first energy system that comes into play when we start exercise, this system kicks in immediately. This is an anaerobic system which means that is does not need the presence of oxygen to work. The fuel that it uses is phosphocreatine which is mostly stored in muscles. This system only last for 8-10 seconds; this is because the PC stores become depleted very quickly. This system is not suitable for endurance exercise as it is anaerobic and requires high intensity activities. When PC is broken down , it is catalysed by the enzyme creatine kinase which responds to rising levels of ADP, the body will then use this as an source of energy. When the PC system has depleted, it only takes 3 minutes for it to be 100% replenished, and 1 minute for 50% of the PC stores to replenish.
The lactic acid (LA) system
When the PC system has depleted, the LA system kicks in. This system usually lasts up to 3 minutes. This system like the PC system is anaerobic and does not use oxygen. In the LA system glucose is used as the main fuel; because glucose is mainly stored as glycogen within our muscles and liver, the body has to use complex processes such as glycolysis which converts glycogen into glucose allowing the body to use it as an energy source. The main enzyme used in glycolysis is phosphfucktokinase (PFK). During the LA system 2 ATP molecules are made giving the body energy. The one problem with the lactic acid system is that the by-product is lactic acid, which restricts the athlete to performing to their full potential. This energy system again is usually used in high intensity exercises.
Training principles
‘Training is a systematic process in which athletes improve their fitness to meet the demands of their sport. Training is a long-term process that is progressive and meets the individual athlete at their level of fitness and conditioning. Training uses both general and event-specific exercises to develop an athlete for their sport. Training is a cyclical process: tear down, recovery, super-compensation and build up (adaptation).’
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When we train, we do specific damage to some cells, and use up cellular resources (fuel, water, salts). When you walk off the track or get out of the pool after a workout, you are weaker, not stronger. How much weaker depends on the amount and intensity of the exercise. After the training session, if the body is given proper rest and food, the body will adjust to super-compensate and prepare for the next stress.
Law of Overload
Overloading is perhaps the fundamental principle of fitness. It is basically an increase in demand to force bodily adaptation. A training load is the work or exercise that an athlete performs in a training session. Loading is the process of applying training loads — training programs.
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When an athlete's fitness is challenged by a new training load there is a response from the body. This bodily response is called an adaptation. The initial response is fatigue. When the loading stops there is a process of recovery. Recovery and adaptation take the athlete to a higher level of fitness from where he/she started.
It is safest to alter one of the three factors below to overload the body.
Frequency — how often
Duration — how long
Intensity — how hard
The body's ability to adapt explains how training works. If the training load is not great enough there is little or no increase in fitness level or athletic performance. A loading that is too great can result in injury or illness to the athlete.
Law of Reversibility
You know the saying, "If you do not use it, you lose it." If athletes are not training regularly, there is no need for their bodies to adapt. Be creative and innovative in getting your athletes to train and compete more often. Increased training frequency will not only help them improve their athletic performances, but their fitness levels will improve as a direct result of increased training. That will have a positive impact on their overall quality of life — they'll be healthier.
It is also important to not over train or overload the body so much that it experiences incomplete adaptation. Rest is no longer adequate for recovery. Decline in performance caused by incomplete adaptation is one of the most obvious signs of over training.
Additional common signs of over training include the following.
Irritability and moodiness
Altered sleep patterns
Loss of appetite
Loss of motivation or competitive drive
Persistent muscle soreness that does not go away
Fatigue not relieved by rest
Increased incidence of minor illness or injury
Law of Specificity
The specific nature of a training load produces its own specific response and adaptations. The exercise will have a very specific pattern of joint and muscle coordination. The training load must be specific to both the individual athlete and the demands of their chosen event. This does not negate general training. General training prepares athletes for specific training. The greater the volume of general training, the greater the capacity is for specific training.
Principle of Individualism
Athletes respond in their own individual way to fitness activities. Athletes bring their unique talents, capabilities, capacities and responses to training. Heredity determines many physiological factors such as heart and lung size, characteristics of muscle fiber, physique and balance. The amount of rest and sleep as well as responses to the environment (heat/cold, pollution, stress and altitude) vary from one athlete to another. Nutrition and past or current illness or injury will also have an influence on ability to perform.
The body's physiological readiness for training is another important factor. Athletes at the same chronological age can be at very different levels of maturity, and up to four years apart in their developmental and biological ages. In addition, training age, the length of time an athlete has been training, must also be considered.
Athletes — Same Chronological Age — Different Training Capacities
Athletes — Same Chronological Age — Similar Training Capacities
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Principle of Variety
Training is a long-term process and loading and recovery can become boring. Plan variety into your athlete's training program. Build in cross-training workouts and add pool workouts to the program. Be creative. Variation is an alternation of stress and is a necessary part of an athlete's progression. A weekly and monthly schedule should contain alternating periods of hard and easy work. Work should alternate with periods of rest to allow the body to adapt to the changes that have occurred.
Principle of Active Involvement
Perhaps the most important principle, active involvement, requires the athlete wanting to actively and willingly participate in their training program. Improvement in overall fitness requires long-term commitment by the coach and especially the athlete. This requires that all aspects of an athlete's life contribute to the success of his/her performance on the field of play.