In what way or when (under which circumstances) will goal setting be effective in motivating athletes/teams, and in what way or under which circumstances will it not be effective?

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Z0222143                Applied Psychology Summative Assignment 1

In what way or when (under which circumstances) will goal setting be effective in motivating athletes/teams, and in what way or under which circumstances will it not be effective?

In what way or when (under which circumstances) will goal setting be effective in motivating athletes/teams, and in what way or under which circumstances will it not be effective?

        The most widely accepted definition of the term goal is “attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified time limit” (Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham (1981) in Gould, 2001, cited in Williams, J. M. 2001). Goal setting is a cognitive-behavioural strategy (Cox, 1998) that may be a valuable tool in sport for enhancing motivation and performance (Locke & Latham, 1990). Also ‘goal setting has not only been shown to influence the performance of athletes.., but has also has been linked to positive changes in important psychological states such as anxiety, confidence and motivation… however, it as falsely assumed, for example, that because athletes set goals on their own these goals will automatically facilitate performance’ (Gould, 2001, cited in Williams, 2001). Depending on the sporting situation, goals can be made for individuals e.g. a marathon runner to beat a personal best in competition, or teams e.g. a football team to qualify for automatic promotion to a higher division.

        There are 3 main types of goals outlined by Weinberg and Gould (1999): Outcome Goals, Performance Goals and Process Goals. Outcome goals are associated with the result of an event, e.g. winning the University College’s League, performance goals focus on achieving standards or performance objectives independently of other competitors, usually making comparisons to one’s own previous performances, e.g. when shooting at goal aim to raise the percentage of times the target is hit, and process goals are concerned with the actions an individual must engage in during performance to execute or perform well, e.g. to get you head over the ball and strike it with the laces of your boot when taking a penalty kick.

        It has been suggested that it would be more beneficial to set performance and process goals to individuals and teams, as these goals emphasise personal quality and greater athlete control and adaptability, in comparison to outcome goals where they rely on the performance standard of others, therefore making goal achievement an external factor. Consequently, Burton (1989) argues that performance goals ensure higher motivation, lower anxiety and greater success than outcome goals. This is supported by recent research by Kingston and Hardy (1997, cited in Weinberg & Gould, 1999) in that process goals are particularly effective in positively influencing golfer’s self-efficacy, cognitive anxiety and confidence.

        Goal setting could be a valuable tool for College football players to enhance their performance. Locke and colleagues (1981) stated that “the beneficial effect of goal setting on task performance is one of the most robust and replicable findings in the psychological literature. Ninety percent of the studies showed positive or partially positive effects. Furthermore these effects are found just as reliable in the field setting as the laboratory” (cited in Gould, 2001, in Williams, 2001).  Enhanced performance from the players may result from greater acquisition of skill, increased motivation levels, and increased adherence to training and stress. Although it is widely accepted that goal setting can be effective, it can also have adverse effects if the theories behind goal setting are not applied properly. For example, Football is a team game, therefore; both team and individual goals may prove important in this context. If players neglect to set team goals and concentrate solely on personal goals, they may not function well as a team, and despite possible individual performance enhancement, overall team cohesion could be lost and performance may not improve, and in fact, may deteriorate.

        There have been many goal setting principles proposed and the ones highlighted in this discussion are those that were regarded as key for effective goal setting by several researchers (Locke & Latham, 1990; Kingston & Hardy, 1997; Cox, 1998; Weinberg & Gould, 1999; Gould 2001). All of the researchers stressed the need for each and every goal to be specific. A football striker aiming to improve his heading would too general because the player would be unable to measure whether or not the goal has been achieved. However, if the player aimed to get between 70%-80% of headers at goal on target, or 80%-90% of headers to a member of his own team would be a much better goal because the specificity has a particular aim. Goals should be specific and difficult, however they must remain attainable. The reason the goals must be challenging is to keep the athlete interested and motivated to achieve. Goals that are unattainable can have detrimental effects on an athlete’s motivation and confidence while increasing cognitive anxiety, thus leading to a decrease in performance. Goals that are set for an individual should be both long-term and short-term goals. The goals set should follow a strategy to achieve an ultimate goal, for instance, for a season long goal for a goalkeeper to improve his shot-stopping, short-term goals should be set within that context to help him achieve the long-term goal. The goalkeeper should set short-term goals of increasing flexibility, muscular strength (both upper and lower body), speed and concentration. These short-term goals can be done in training, giving the player constant feedback and evaluation on his progress, and this can be evaluated as a whole at the end of the season. This sort of goal is difficult, but realistic, measurable as well as adaptable.

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        It is important that the theory behind goal setting is understood before setting goals to anyone because if goals are set inappropriately adverse effects may result as opposed to the positive effects desired. The three main theories associated with goal setting are those of ‘Goal Setting Theory’ (Locke & Latham, 1985); ‘Self-Efficacy Theory’ (Bandura, 1986) and the ‘Indirect Thought Process’ explanation (Burton, 1984; Garland, 1985). Locke & Latham (1990) proposed a mechanism by which goal setting enhances performance, including four main components: Directing attention; Mobilizing Effort; Enhancing persistence and; developing new learning strategies (cited in Gill, 2000). Their investigation also ...

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