The next part of the model is short-term memory, detection, comparison and recognition all rely on memory to function and provide information to the player. We are not conscious of our short term memory, although it can hold a large amount of information, it only does so for a very short time, maybe only one second, this is because the information held here is irrelevant so it I filtered out so the system is not overloaded.
“If the perceptual mechanism decides that the stimuli is not relevant or important, the sensory memory held in the short-term sensory store fades and is lost.”
(Bob Davis 2000)
When stimuli is passed from the short-term sensory stores to the short-term memory the incoming stimulus is compared with similar stimuli which has been previously learned and stored in the long-term memory.
People’s short-term memory is normally between five and nine, but can vary if studied for longer.
The process of using your long-term memory is recognition. An image (or sound, sensation etc) which you see can be compared with something you already know in your long-term memory, and if you feel it close enough you can name it, you know what it is and what to do. Our brain is constantly doing this but we are not conscious of it.
The next part of the information-processing model is Decision-making, we get the information to make a decision from our perceptual ability, we make sense of the information and decide on an appropriate response. The speed of which we make a decision is called the reaction time. In port the shorter the reaction time this better, if you respond quicker to a gun at the beginning of a race you will have an advantage over the other athletes.
Effector control is the control of the senses through the central nervous system and effectors are which makes the movement happen, the muscles.
The final part of the information-processing model is feedback, this is the loop back to the start. This is the final evaluation of the outcome of the performed skill. There are three different feedback loops, exteroceptive feedback, this is from the outcome of the skill. It is passed back to the performer through the senses and short-term memory. May come from the observation of the performer, team-mates, coach or a recorded video.
The next feedback loop is proprioception feedback, this feedback comes from the muscles and tendons, and the balance sensors, which gives information to the short-term memory about the feel of the movement through rhythm and co-ordination.
The last feedback loop is kinaesthetic feedback, the information goes directly from the muscles, tendons and joints to the spinal cord. We are not conscious of how we respond to this information.
I will now give an example for what I have explained and relate them to a sport, I have chosen tennis.
The player can see the opponent, the net and the ball and he can feel the racket in his hand, his feet on the ground, and can feel weather he has performed a move correctly, intrinsic feedback. This all relates to sensory input. This information then has to be made sense of, Perception. He will detect everything around him but will only concentrate on the other players moves, and the position of the ball. If the other player has performed a particular move the brain will compare this with similar codes that have been stored in the memory then will it is matched it is recognised.
Certain things that happen in the game will only be stored in the short-term memory that could just be a few seconds, but skills which have been practised and concentrated on will be stored in the long-term memory, like the skill to serve. Throughout the game tennis the player has to make many decisions, what way to run to hit the ball, which way to hit the ball etc. in order to have a successful game the players reaction time must be very short.
The feedback to the player can be from him or herself, their coach, the press if it has been recorded for television or even the opponent.
There are many different styles of teaching although different ways like ‘trial and error’ and ‘learning by experience’ can also be an effective way.
There is known to be four elements of the teaching process. These are, instructing, demonstrating, applying, and confirming.
Instructing is telling the learner what to do and how to do it. They should give them enough information for them to go away and do it. This is usually done verbally or/and with worksheets. The information should be very clear. Demonstrating is a good way of showing the learner how to perform the skill, but it has to be performed accurately and clearly to be effective to the learner. Demonstrating makes it easier for the skill to be stored in the long-term memory. From these instructions the learner then has to apply the skill, this means doing the skill and practising it over time. The teachers role here is to guide the learner to apply what they have learned to the activity. After this the teacher has to confirm. This is reviewing what has been learned and the progress made. The teacher can also ask the learner questions to encourage self-evaluation and reinforce learning.
There are so many different styles of teaching but I am only going to explain three of them, command style, practise style and reciprocal style. Command style is very much how it sounds, the teacher makes al the decisions and takes complete control over what is learnt and how. Examples of when this is used are in aerobics classes and keep-fit. This style of teaching is not advisable otherwise as it is better to hand some decisions and responsibilities to the learner.
Practise style is when the teacher sets the task and the learners have to go away and practise in their own time. The teacher will occasionally observe to see how much improvement has been made and how capable the learner is.
Reciprocal style is when the learners work in pairs, one will do the task and one will observe. The teacher will make the task is understood for successful completion. The teacher will help the observer with their teaching and the observer helps the doer. This allows a lot of immediate feedback compared with teaching a large group all together.
The teacher should always choose a suitable style for the learners.
Whole practise
This is when the learner performs the skill as a complete unit.
This type of learning is best suitable for fast skills or simple skills that have maybe been demonstrated first. This gives the performer a feel for the whole movement and is also less time consuming for the teacher and the learner. Stopping a ball is a skill which would be taught by the whole method.
Part practise
This is used when the skill is long so it is broken down into sections then put together. Each part is practised until it is well learned and then put together to form a whole skill. The triple jump would usually be taught using the part method. Each jump would be practised then all three put together.
Whole-part-whole practise
The learner will practise the skill as a whole then practise aspects of it, when they are well learned it is then put together again and practised as a whole. A game can be played with just being told the rules, then different skills of the game can be concentrated on and practised, then the game played again but the quality of the skills will be much better.
Massed practise
“The skill is practised until learned without taking any breaks”
(Bob Davis 2000)
This is suitable for activities that are simple, when the motivation to learn is high, and practise when the player is fatigued which might be experienced in competition. Or when practise time is very short or just when the learner is able and fit.
The activity will be practised without any breaks until perfect or time runs out. This requires a lot of concentrating.
Distributed practise
“Practise is interspersed with breaks which can either be rest or the practise of another skill.”
(Bob Davis 2000)
This is used when the skill is complex, there is danger if fatigue sets in, with young learners, when motivation for learning is low, or when the learners are not fit enough.
The sessions are split into shorter sessions with breaks.
Forms of Guidance
The teacher also has to decide which form of guidance to use on the learners. There are three basic forms of guidance.
- Visual
- Verbal
- Manual or Mechanical
Visual guidance is done by Demonstration, visual aids, and modifying the display. Demonstration is interesting to learners, rather than just talking their way through it, but it must be accurate and relate to their age, experience and gender. Visual aids include photographs, charts and models, these are cheap and available to the teacher. Videos are also included and are said to be most beneficial as it can be played back in slow motion. As well as demonstration videos can be used to provide feedback from the learners performance.
Modifying the display is basically enhancing aspects of the surroundings, e.g. the colour of the tennis ball, marks on a court, chalk on a gymnastic mat and coloured bibs of team players.
Verbal guidance is used very much in teaching to set the task clearly and to describe the actions he/she is able to highlight the important performance cues. This method is very useful when used by a knowledgeable teacher, as it has to be clear and understandable. It is also important that it is easy for the learner to remember.
Manual or mechanical guidance involves physical contact, by the coach or pieces of equipment e.g. coach supporting the gymnast through a movement, swimming armband or tight rope. These are all to reduce error and fear and for safety. These are separated into two forms.
Physical restriction- where a person or object restricts the performer from movements in a safe way, e.g. trampoline belt.
Forced response- the performer is guided through a movement, e.g. the coach may physically guide the player through a forehand drive in tennis.
