Skill consists in the ability to bring about some end result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of energy, or time and energy (Guthrie, 1972)
Bob sharp advocated that skill has to satisfy four criteria.
Skill results in actions that have a clear end in result i.e. it must be goal directed. Skill has direction and purpose.
Skill is a learned characteristic; skill requires practice and experienced expertise i.e. skill cannot be acquired through genes.
Skill results in movements that are economic and efficient in terms of energy and outlay.
Skilled activity is the end result of a whole chain of CNS. This point is substantiated by Schmidt (1991) he stated that there were three aspects of skill:
Perceiving relevant environmental cues.
DM where and when.
Production of organized muscular ability and movement.
Individual skill - are those performed in isolation? E.g. Figure Skating, high jump
Co-active skill - coordination of movement
Interactive skill - responding within your environment
Climbing dancing and serving in tennis are clearly different types of skill. Each of these skills has to be learnt in different ways. All people involved in sport find it useful to be able to classify skills so those different characteristics can be taken into account of.
Classification is the process of grouping similar skills together then giving them each a generic label.
The classifications are listed in these types of skills
- Body involvement
- Duration of movement
- Pacing conditions
- Cognitive involvement
- Feedback availability
Cognitive skills, or intellectual skills, involve thought processes e.g. adding up the score cards in golf, or measurement of a golf drive off the tee, this can also be applied to tactics within a game itself, changing tactics to take advantage of a weakness in the opponent (e.g. if you are facing an immobile opponent in tennis you may use the drop shot more often, similarly if the opponent is small you may utilise the lob shot more, or returning a shot to the opponents 'weaker' side). This classification of skill requires a deep knowledge of not just the game you are participating in but an effective understanding of your opponent’s game, a phrase commonly used in sports being that 'he/she knows the game inside out.'
Perceptual skills are interpretation of stimuli; this may mean interpretation of the same information by two people completely differently. A person with high perceptual skills can usually process information quicker, therefore reacting quicker; this is often called 'reading the game'. E.g. reading signs whilst a player is serving in tennis, either in their stance, their ball toss, or the position of their racket, in order to get to the ball quicker to make your return shot. Another example would be in golf whereupon the player reads the situation according to the course (hazards/obstructions), and the environment, and applies slice, swing, spin or curve to the ball to manoeuvre the course
Motor skills involve the muscular system, concerning movement and muscular control e.g. running to the net to return a drop shot in tennis, or a golf swing. Motor skills are fundamentally co-ordinated body sequences and motor programmes.
In order to learn and perform any type of skill we must first have the required abilities. These abilities that you have are generally regarded as being innate
Some examples of specific abilities are; hand/eye co-ordination, depth perception, flexibility and speed, without these abilities it would not be possible to learn skills such as a tennis smash. Another example is if your average height and born with lots of fast twitch fibres it enables you the traits to become a sprinter.
Sport evolves around skill. It is important that you don't get skill and ability mixed up. Skill can be learned and improved if practised. Ability is also known as 'natural ability' it something that you are born with and cannot be learned. An example of skill is a cricket bowl you learn how to bowl if practised your bowling will be more consistently on target.
A good example of ability is being born with good eye coordination mean you have the ability to focus on an object quicker than most people.
Some skills are hard to classify as some skills can be classed as more than one category. However classification does helps to understand the nature of the skill and how it is performed. Most skill classification systems are based on the view that motor skills are affected by three factors:
How precise a movement is
Whether the movement has a definite beginning and end
Whether the environment affects the performance of the skill
The Gross and Fine Continuum
This continuum is concerned with the precision of movement - gross and fine skills
Gross skills: involve large muscle movements, where the major muscle groups are involved. The movements are not very precise, and include many fundamental movement patterns such as walking, running and jumping. The shot putt is an example of a primarily gross skill.
Fine skills: involve intricate movements using small muscle groups, tend to be precise and generally involve high levels of hand-eye coordination. A snooker shot or playing the piano is examples fine skills.
The Open and Closed Continuum
This continuum is concerned with the effects of the environment on skills - Barbara Knapp's open and closed skills
Open skills: sports such as Netball, Football, and Hockey usually involve open skills. This is because the environment is constantly changing and so movements have to be continually adapted. Therefore, skills are predominantly perceptual. The skill is mostly externally paced, for example a pass in football.
Closed skills. These skills take place in a stable, predictable environment and the performer knows exactly what to do and when. Therefore, skills are not affected by the environment and tend to be habitual. Movements follow set patterns and have a clear beginning and end. The skills tend to be self-paced, for example a free throw in Basketball, and serving in Squash or Tennis.
Barbara Knapp suggests that skill can fit on a continuum between open and closed.
The External and Internal Faced Continuum
This continuum is concerned with the timing of movements (and is often used with the open-closed continuum) - internal and external paced skills
Internally paced or self-paced skills: the performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed. These skills are usually closed skills. I.e. javelin throws, discus
Externally paced skills the environment, which may include opponents, controls the rate of performing the skill. The performer must pay attention to external events in order to control his/her rate of movement. These skills involve reaction, and are usually open skills. I.e. in ball games the performer must time his actions with the actions of other players and the ball.
The Discrete, Serial and Continuous Continuum
This continuum is concerned with how well defined the beginning and end of the skill are - discrete, serial and continuous skills.
Discrete skills are brief, well-defined actions that have a clear beginning and end. They are single, specific skills, which make up the actions involved in a variety of sports such as hitting and throwing. Hockey. I.e. a penalty flick in
Serial Skills are a group of discrete skills strung together to make a new and complex movement. I.e. the sequence of skills for the triple jump.
Continuous skills have no obvious beginning or end. The end of one cycle of movements is the beginning of the next, and the skill is repeated like a cycle. These skills could be stopped at any moment during the performance of the skill. I.e. Swimming, Running, Cycling.
Individual, Coactive and interactive skills
Individual skills are those performed in isolation. E.g. Figure Skating, high jump
Coactive skills are those performed at the same time as others but without direct confrontation. E.g. running, swimming
Interactive skills are those performed where other performers are directly involved. E.g. rugby, football, basketball, netball
Self and Externally paced skills
Self-paced skills are those that are instigated by the performer and externally paced skills are those where the timing of the performance of the skill is not controlled by the performer, but by an outside instigator.
Once sport is put on a continuum it can:
- It can be analyzed to reflect the nature of the skill
- Once we have classified a skill we can decide how best to teach it, how to make practices relevant to the skill, how to make learning logical. You need to know the definitions for each continuum
- You need to be able to justify why you place a skill in a certain position.
There are a number of qualities widely regarded as essential for a performance to be classified as skilful;
- Consistency
- Accuracy
- Control
- An intention
- Fluidity
References
www.sportcoachuk.co.uk
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk
Bitec National Sport and Exercise Science Author Jan Stafford Simon Rea and John Chance
Class notes
Advanced Studies in Physical Education and Sport Author : Paul Beashel and John Taylor
