A strength of this theory is it allows the learners to experiment and use there own intuition and knowledge to solve a problem they face. However if the learner has absolutely no idea what they are doing they will not improve or learn the skill until the coach tells / shows them exactly what they need to do. Another strength of this theory is that a learner should learn as whole and not just smaller parts of skills. This encourages the co-ordination needed do carry out the movement. However if a learner can not do a certain part of a skill it might need to get broken down it to smaller chunks so that the performer can concentrate on getting a set piece right.
Social (observational) learning Theory.
This learning theory is based on how other people influence behaviour based on watching and copying them.
Bandura suggests there are for process in observational learning.
Attention – “coaches demand that players attend instructions or provide cues about how best to perform” (class notes) for example don’t watch were the ball lands just watch my technique and how my arm is bent.
Retention – This is remembering the model behaviour. Repetition helps this to happen. Coaches encourage a mental imaging of a skill and by catch phrases for 90 degrees (bent arm), legs (kicking), look (where your throwing the ball).
Motor production – This is the attempt that the learner has. It is important the coach demonstrates correctly to allow the learner to get a correct mental image.
Motivation – People tend to imitate what they are interested in and be motivated to achieve. The use of reinforcement enhances motivation and increase likely hood of achievement.
Demonstration.
Strengths and weaknesses of this theory.
A weakness of this type of learning is that coaches can not always control what players are learning. They may pick up bad habits from there roll models not just the good techniques. Another Weakness is that the learner would not be able to pick up every little movement that the expert performer carries out; therefore the skill would be missing bits. However a strength of this type of learning is that the learner stays more motivated because they can see what they want to become eventually and how aesthetically pleasing the skill looks when it is performed well. Motivation is the key to success.
Conclusion of learning theories.
All of these theories are better suited for different level of performers. Social/ observation is suitable for athletes in the early / cognitive stages of learning because they can watch there heroes doing what they want to achieve. It would motivate them to keep attending the training sessions. For example watching the advanced player performing a jump half turn. When the beginner saw the advanced player doing it would make them want to be able to do it so that they are one step closer to being as good as there heroes. The Cognitive learning theory would be perfect for intermediate or association level performers because they have the basic knowledge of skill to practice them as whole skills and the basic knowledge to use there intuition to solve problems. For example when a player is one on nil with the goal keeper and the trailing defender is close enough to give away a penalty but not stop the player from shooting. The defending player is faced with the problem of what to do. This is when the player has to decide using there own intuition what they need to do. Finally the Connectionist or Association Theories are best suited for advanced or autonomous players that have the basic tactical and skill knowledge and have been in the sport for a while and can adapt to different situations. For example when teaching them to set up a zone defence, because the coach can structure it and tell them the basics of what they need to do and then leave the players to discover it them selves. This type of learning would also be available for early or cognitive learners that have never played before because you can tell them exactly what they need to do. For example when learning to throw a ball. If the wrong technique is carried out injury could occur. So the coach can tell them exactly what they need to do to prevent injury.
Similarities and Differences between each learning theory.
The 3 learning theories that I have written about above have different views on how learning occurs. Connectionist or association theory is that learning occurs from a stimulus in the environment with a movement. Where as the cognitive learning theory is that a learner learns by using there intuition to solve a problem. And that the problem needs to be seen as a whole and not broken down in to parts. Differently again the social learning theory states that “other people influence behaviour.” Learners will copy an advanced player and try to do exactly what they see. A similarity of all 3 of these learning theories is that learners need to be motivated and have positive feedback to perform a skill correctly. Similarities between Cognitive and connectionist or association theories are that they both allow trial and error / experimental time for the learner while they are learning the skill. However in the connectionist or association theory the coach has slightly more control over what the learner is doing.
Motor programmes.
A motor programme specifies what movements the skill is composed of and the order in which they happen. For example when performing a pass off the water in water polo a player will
- Move the ball close with there bad hand (hand that doesn’t pick up the ball)
- Pick the ball up from underneath with the throwing hand.
- Rotate throwing arm and ball around keeping elbow at a 90 degree angle.
- Throw the ball
- Follow threw slapping the water in front and pointing middle finger were the ball needs to go.
These stages are called sub routines. Most skills are made up of a series of sub routines. This is called an executive motor programme. A motor programme comprises “an executive programme and its sub routines. An executive motor programme is a plan of the whole skill or pattern of movement. This plan is stored in the long term memory and through a process known as feedback is updated and modified each time a skill is preformed. Executive motor programmes are made up of mini skills which are usually performed sequentially and are described as sub routines. As the novice becomes an expert these lower order skills are performed almost with out thought and the execution of the skill will have become fluent and appear to be automatic. If this standard of control is acquired the skill is said to have been grooved or over learned” (class notes)
Motor control theories.
Open and closed loop theories extend to 3 levels.
Level 1
- No feedback
- Termed
- Some skills happen to quickly and there is no time for feedback.
Executive motor Motor command
Programme in
long term memory Action by effectors.
Level 2
- Involves short feedback loop through muscles
- Can make rapid adjustments
- The brain is told of adjustments that have been made and stored for future references.
Motor
Control
Executive motor
Programme in Action by effectors
Long term
memory
Feedback via
Muscles.
Level 3
- Feedback loop is longer because information proceeds to the brain.
- Brain controls and modifies movement by sending correct message to muscles
- Involves conscious thought and attention to executive motor programmes
- Feedback loop known as ‘perceptual trace’
- Compares current performance to executive motor programmes already stored in long term memory
- If plan matches the skill proceeds if at fault the skill is adjusted and change is stored in long term memory as a new executive memory programme.
- Achieves control and learning occurs.
Motor
Control
Executive motor
Programme in Action by effectors
Long term
memory
Feedback via
Brain
Criticisms of open and closed loop control theory.
- It is not possible to store the large number of motor programmes as separate plans or memory traces. Problem in retention.
- If we could store all the motor programmes it would be difficult to retrieve/ recall the information in time to perform the action.
- Doesn’t account for novel responses.
Schmidt’s Schema Theory resolved the problems of the open and closed loop theories. It states that “As most skills are open we can not store knowledge of these skills as a motor programme. We store skills as schema or as generalised set of movements”
Schema is a store of information and experience plans are not stored in separate items but are retained in the long term memory as relationships between motor programmes. These relationships are termed generalised movements and allow the performer to adapt quickly in response to a given situation.
Schmidt suggests that when a movement takes place 4 items of information are stored.
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Knowledge or initial conditions – “This includes the state of concentration experienced by the muscle and the situation of the environment before the movement started.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
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Knowledge of movements required to produce the skill – “This is the sequence of contractions and relaxation of the muscles.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
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Knowledge of the out come and its results – “ Schmidt proposed that knowing the out come is the most important aspect because it helps to develop the strength of the schema” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
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Sensory consequences of the movement - “This would include information about how the movement looked and how it sounded.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
“Recall schema is the scheme responsible for producing the movements. It comprises the first two pieces of information produced.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
“Recognition schema is the scheme responsible for evaluating the response it comprises the 3rd and 4th pieces of information.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
Transfer of learning.
Transfer is based on the theory that certain aspects of a skill learnt in one situation can influence performance in another skill. For example if you can throw a basket ball (one handed throw) you can throw a water polo ball. The transfer of learning is so basic we almost assume it occurs.
Singer (1982) refers to this as “relating the then with now”
There are 2 main types of transfer positive transfer, which refers to the transfer of learning a skill that is similar to another for example a water polo player may find the javelin an easy task to do because throwing a water polo ball is similar to throwing a javelin, and negative transfer, this is when the learning of a skill is made harder by the knowledge of another for example a water polo player learning how to race competitively in swimming. A competitive swimming stroke needs a long stroke with your body in a straight line and a complete pull threw, with the leg kick coming from the hip, where as a water polo players swimming stroke in shorter and the kick comes from the knee with a arch in the players back and head out the water.
Stalling (1982) categorised the different types of transfer that can occur in to 6 further categories. These are
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Skill to skill – This is the same as the positive type of transfer, and occurs between two similar skills. For example throwing a ball in net ball and throwing a ball in basket ball.
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Practice to performance – For a skill to be useful it must be transferred to a match situation from a training situation.
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Abilities to skills – The abilities which underpin the skill base how good the performance of the skill is. We have to transfer are relevant abilities to be effective in performing the skill. For example if a player in water polo can not do egg beater and doesn’t have a good hand eye co-ordination they will find it very difficult to catch the ball.
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Bilateral transfer – This transfer occurs between limbs. For example all water polo players can throw with there non dominant hand even if they have never practiced it before.
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Stage to stage – “The development of motor skills depends on building new skills on those learnt already.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134) For example shooting in water polo, shooting is dependant on skills such as eggbeater and correct passing technique to build this skill.
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Principals to skills – “when we learn skills we also learn principals of skills for example we appreciate the importance of timing and body shape and relaxing under pressure to produce a flowing movement. These principals can be applied to the learning of all skills.” (Btec national diploma in sport and exercise science book page 134)
Benefits and problems
The benefits of transfer are that if you are good at one skill that is relevant to another in the same sport or in a different sport you will find it easier to do. However a problem of transfer is that a skill could be completely different in one sport to another, for example competitive swimming and water polo swimming. If this is the case the athlete could find it harder to get to grips with the techniques the need to be a good competitive swimmer.
I am now going to list some sporting examples and say which type of transfer they fit in to.
You have knowledge of badminton and try to learn tennis. This would be a positive transfer in terms of having the hand eye co-ordination and knowing when to strike the ball however it could be a negative transfer because the racquets are different sizes. So you might not connect correctly with the tennis ball.
You have knowledge of squash and try and learn tennis this could be either a negative or a positive transfer because again you would have the co-ordination needed but squash demands the ball is kept low where as in tennis you need to give the ball some height so it travels over the net.
You have knowledge of netball and try to learn basket ball. This would be a positive transfer in terms of having the knowledge of were to throw the ball and being able to steal the ball, but it would be a negative transfer because of the rule differences for example you are not aloud in certain parts of a net ball court and you are not aloud to run with the ball in net ball.
