Rackets was taken up by the public schools for its simple qualities and the possibilities of using architectural features within the school grounds. It was a game which suited the cult of athleticism, containing rules, etiquette and sportsmanship.
Fives – This was played with the palm of the hand, wearing a glove, and the ball was hit against the wall. It was played in inns and other public places, and was a much more individual game than rackets. In the public schools it tended to be played more in the boys’ recreation time and consequently did not establish well-known formal rules.
Lawn Tennis – In the nineteenth century the middle classes with their increasing wealth and leisure time wanted to establish their own form of recreation which would set them apart from the lower classes. The game became enormously popular midway through Queen Victoria’s reign.
Major Wingfield took most of the credit for the game’s popularity. His invention (called Sphairistike), had an hour-glass shaped court. He provided a commercial product which could be brought in kit form making it attractive to the middle classes whose wealth was only determined by trade. The Marylebone Cricket Club took it one step further calling in lawn tennis and adopting an oblong shaped court.
Although Tennis begun like this, the erosion of the class boundaries that has allowed Venus to grow up in a world where she is able to play tennis, despite not being upper, or even middle class. As Venus is a black tennis player, this is even more relevant, as in the past she would have been seen as lower than a lower class white person. Should Venus have grown up in the 15th century, she would not have had the same freedom to play sport that she has today. Not only this, but she would not have been able to earn a living from it, for it is only recently, with the new advances in technology (for example television), that the sport has become a huge spectator sport.
Personality – MODULE 1
Personality is seen as a hypothetical construct (it cannot be directly observed, but only inferred from behaviour). It is suggested that personality in the context of sport is generally to do with how a person deals with the demands of a situation.
Research has generally been focussed towards the relationship between individual performance and personality variables.
The Trait Approach
This dominated the early study of personality, but was criticised for not taking into account how different situations might affect an individual’s behaviour in different environments.
Eysenck’s theory
Eysenck regarded personality as resulting mainly from inherited characteristics.
He identified two major personality dimensions which can be viewed more readily as a continuum: Neurotic
Extroversion Introversion
Stable
I would class Venus as slightly Extroverted, and slightly more Stable (see blue arrow). Although those that play non-team sports are generally deemed to be more Introverted, I don’t believe this of Venus, from the way her personality shows through in her attitude on court, which is full of confidence.
Cattels theory
Cattel measured personality in terms of 16 factors, hence his 16 PF questionnaire. In identifying certain common traits, and some unique traits he recognised that personality was more dynamic that Eysenck suggested, thus Cattels model was seen as providing a more accurate description of personality.
Interactionist approach
This approach suggests that if we wish to try to understand and predict an individual performer’s behaviour we need to consider in depth both the individual person and the specific situation. In doing so, a much more complete picture and explanation of a person’s behaviour can be developed.
Venus Williams is the type of person who is serious when she’s playing or practicing but at the same time very fun and loving. She has fought hard to get where she is now and because of this many people respect her. Venus starting playing so young in her career, and has become one of the best tennis players in the world. Venus has learnt never to let anything get her down or set her back. Her dynamic personality and zest for winning make her an inspirational role model to audiences around the world. Here are a few examples of what she says about her own personality:
A. I think that, really, my schedule really just mirrors my personality. Lots of players are able to play quite a few matches. But if I would just do one thing in my life I would be terribly bored. So I've got to do what makes me happy, and playing the amounts of tournaments that I've played so far has made me happy, and for me that's what's best.
"I can't hold back in life - it's just the way I am, my personality. I don't like to miss out on celebrations or a great laugh." BBC Sport 8th July 2000
Media – MODULE 5
The world of media includes newspapers, radio and television broadcasting. They are forms of conveying information to the general public.
Newspapers
Today there are 2 major types of newspapers:
- Tabloids – eg. ‘The Sun’, tend to have a huge section devoted to sport, but focus on male dominated sports and sports with broad appeal.
- Broadsheets – eg. ‘The Times’, tend to cover and analyse sport in more depth and detail. They offer more variety, but there is still a predominance in male sport.
Radio
First reported live events in 1920’s. The BBC has traditionally shown sports without advertisers influence, however the USA scheduled events to maximise advertiser’s demands.
Television
Television is able to broadcast sporting action to a large audience, relatively cheaply. It is this, along with the high ratings gained, that sport features so heavily on television schedules.
Media coverage can effect sports stars – it can cause a positive or negative effect in terms of sponsorship deals, public interest etc.
Media coverage of Venus has generally been positive, but also commenting on the ‘strength’ and ‘power’ of her game as an aspect that is very dominating in the women’s sport. For example, here is an extract from an article on BBC sport:
Traditionally, the women's game has been one of accuracy and consistency rather than brute force of the men's game. This approach has been embodied by players like Steffi Graf and Martina Hingis. However, the days of this kind of player could be numbered as the new breed use sheer strength to force errors out of their opponent.
Here are some other headlines about Venus on BBC Sport
Venus shines on centre court
Wonderful Williams
Venus’ name was on the trophy
Venus: a black star in America
ARTICLES ON VENUS
“First, a question to try on your mates. Who are Yetunde, Isha and Lyndrea? They are the other Williams sisters; the ones who are not millionaires like Serena and Venus. They were already too old when their dad, Richard, decided he should start factory-farming tennis superstars.” The Mirror, Jan 30th 2003
“She is not the most astute of match players, putting too much faith in her strong right arm and not enough in her quick wits. A lay-off with tendonitis in the wrists will not have helped her preparation. Her father hinted she might retire and Venus has to prove there is plenty left in the tank.” – The Guardian, biographies for Wimbledon 2000
In the past Venus has been referred to as a ‘butch’ women, which may have caused a negative affect on her. However, Venus has the personality that can deal with it. On the whole media coverage of Venus has been fairly positive, she is more likely to have used it to her advantage in this game, by allowing it to boost her confidence.
Levers – MODULE 1
In the human body, bones act as levers, joints act as the fulcrum, and muscular contractions provide the force to move the lever.
There are 3 types of levers, determined by the relationships between the fulcrum (F), the weight or resistance (R), and the point of the application of force/effort (E):
1st class lever - the Fulcrum lies between the Effort and the Resisting force
E
F
W
eg. A seesaw
For example, when Venus plays a backhand shots. The action of the triceps muscle is on the elbow joint.
2nd class lever – the Resistance lies between the Fulcrum and the Effort
F E
W
eg. A wheelbarrow
For example when Venus pushes off from the ground to allow herself to change direction. She uses the ball of her foot as a point to ‘push off’.
3rd class lever – the Effort is between the Fulcrum and the Resistance.
F E
W
eg. A human arm
This is the most commonly used lever in the human body. A good example of this is the action of Venus’ hamstrings and quadriceps on the knee joint, enabling flexion and extension in the lower leg.
Venus Williams, at 6ft 1in., has very long levers; combined with a tennis racket that extends her levers even further (when Venus serves she straightens her arm, creating a longer lever), which increases the linear velocity at impact, creating more power. Levers have two main functions; one of them is to increase the speed at which a body moves (e.g. a tennis ball), and this is how Venus uses her long levers to her advantage. Her levers allow her to get great power and speed behind the ball, and this is one of the most well known and valuable assets in her game.
Energy Systems – MODULE 4
All movement requires energy. The chemical energy requirement of a cell is supplied by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a high energy compound. There is a limited store of ATP in the muscles and it must be replenished as stores become low, as it is the energy currency of any living thing. There are 3 energy systems which govern the replenishment of ATP and therefore energy supply.
The Alactic/ATP-PC system
Phosphocreatine (PC) is the most immediate reserve to resynthesise ATP.
PC is a regenerated form of energy from ATP, therefore when you are exercising maximally, no ATP will be available because it is being constantly used.
This pathway involves the rapid regeneration of ATP through PC (another energy-rich compund). The energy from the breakdown of PC is used to rebuild ATP so that it can again be broken down to maintain a constant supply of energy.
The Lactic Acid Pathway
Once phosphocreatine has been depleted within the muscle, ATP must be resynthesised from glycogen. Carbohydrates (eg. sugar/starch) are stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Before it can provide energy for ATP resynthesis, glycogen must be broken down and converted to the compound glucose-6-phosphate, which requires one molecule of ATP. Once this has occurred, glycolysis (the breaking down of a glucose molecule to release energy) can begin: Glycolytic enzymes break down the glucose molecule in 12 reactions, in the cytoplasm of the cell. Glucose-6-phosphate is downgraded to form pyruvic acid, which in the absence of oxygen is converted to lactic acid, by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). This process generates a gain of 2 ATP molecules from 1 molecule of glucose.
The Aerobic system
This system differs from the first two, as it requires the use of oxygen. The initial stages of the aerobic process are similar to those of the lactic acid system, except that the fate of pyruvic acid changes when oxygen is available. Pyruvic acid is converted to a compound called acetyl-coenzyme-A, which combined with oxaloacetic acid forms citric acid before it enters the Krebs cycle.
The Krebs Cycle
Once citric acid enters the Krebs Cycle (which takes place inside the mitochondria), it is subject to a series of reactions.
-
Citric acid is oxidised whereby hydrogen is removed from the compound.
- As a result, carbon and oxygen are left; they combine to produce carbon dioxide which is eliminated via the lungs
- In addition energy sufficient to resynthesise 2 ATP is released.
The Electron Transport System
The hydrogen given off at the Krebs cycle is carried to the electron transport system. The atom is split into hydrogen ions, and electrons. The electrons are used to provide the energy to resynthesise 34ATP.
In tennis, the energy systems used are 25% aerobic, and 75% anaerobic. However both are equally important, and therefore Venus must have well developed anaerobic and aerobic pathways.
This game showed that Venus has a good aerobic pathway as she was able to run across the court with much ease and relying on instant energy. The system has to deliver oxygen quickly to her muscles to cause muscle contraction which produces her speed and power on court.
Physical Education – MODULE 2
Physical Education is an academic discipline, the main focus of which is the study of human movement. The main emphasis of physical education is on activity, and is an educational process which aims to enhance total human development through movement and the experience of a range of physical activities within an educational setting. This means acquiring specific skills and knowledge, as well as fostering positive attitudes and values which will be useful in later life. Physical education can help us achieve a quality of life and vitality which can be lacking in sedentary lifestyles.
Venus would have participated in physical education while she was at school, as in America, like here, it is compulsory. Her experiences in physical education at school, may have had an affect on her liking for tennis, and her teachers are likely to have spotted her talent and notified her of any clubs in the area the she could join, to aid her progression.
In the USA, children begin nursery (kindergarten) aged four to five years, which aims to prepare them for their elementary education from the age of 6 to 12 years. Advancement to each grade is based on achieving specialised skills in a number of subjects. The secondary schools allow much choice in the upper grades, as subjects are career-based.
The system is similar to that in the UK, where the local authorities have some input. However, the teacher in the USA does not have the same amount of freedom in choosing their teaching programme, as the superintendent of the local school board draws u pa programme which the teachers implement.
Physical education is an essential and basic part of the total educational programme from kindergarten to age 12. It is valued for their ability to enhance the unique characteristics of students on a physical, mental, emotional and social level.
There are similarities in primary education with the UK, where the movement approach towards physical education is adopted with a more heuristic teaching style and is taken by the classroom teacher who is usually a non-specialist. This is not common in the secondary sector in the USA as a fitness testing approach takes over. Fitness testing suits the USA ‘ethics’ as it suits a culture which is based on objectivity, accountability, quantification and the determination to produce the best they can. The Physical Fitness Movement was influential in introducing fitness tests.
A teacher is usually the first person who introduces young people to physical activities that they may not have participated in before. Although Venus begun to play tennis with her father when she was just 4, her schooling is likely to have played a part in her development, particularly when she was younger, as she would have had other children to play against, which would probably have made the learning more fun for her.
Although I do not know for sure how much affect Venus’ schooling had on her ability to play tennis, as she had much coaching outside school; her school experience of sport would have had to be a good one for her to continue wanting to play.