The Astrand bicycle ergometer test consists of an Astrand-Rhyming Nomogram which is a mathematical formula that has been worked out to predict maximal oxygen comsumption. This is carried out through attempting to get the person to work at approx. 70% of their maximal aerobic power on an exercise bicycle which in small amounts increases through intensity. The submaximal heart rate result is then compared to an Astrand nomogram for the calculation of aerobic work capacity. Other important factors eg. gender, age and body weight are considered when calculating maximal aerobic power
TESTS FOR MUSCULAR STRENGTH
Muscular strength refers to ability of muscle to generate force against resistance. How strength is measured depends on whether it is absolute strength, relative strength or strength endurance.
Absolute strength : maximal force generated by muscle which usually involves only one maximal muscle contraction. Two of the most convenient techniques to measure this include the use of dynamometers and tensiometers. The dynamometers, for example a hand grip dynamometer, measures the force generated by your hand when your contract it, whereas the tensiometer measures strength by determining how much tension is developed in muscle. The stronger the person, the higher the score. This is done through pulling two metal wires that are connected to the tensiometer.
Relative strength : force generated by muscle however, correction is made on account of body weight. For example, two people could have the same score on a strength test, but one person may be lighter than the other. On the basis of weight, the lighter person would have higher relative strength.
Strength endurance : the ability of the muscle to repeat muscle contractions against a resistance (load). The use of body weight such as the sit-up, chin-up or push-up is a measure of strength endurance.
TESTS FOR MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
Muscular endurance refers to the ability of specific muscle groups to do repeated contractions, usually to fatigue or failure. Most field-based tests incorporate body weight tests which are usually referred to as dynamic tests whereas most muscle endurance tests are specific to a particular muscle group, and are often referred to as local muscle endurance tests.
The sit-up test is commonly used for muscular endurance (abdominal muscles and hip flexors). Which can be performed in a variety of ways. One of the most used methods is with assistance from a partner holding feet to the ground. The scoring of the sit-up test is usually the total number of completed sit-ups in a certain time (usually 30 – 60 sec ) which are then compared to a table of norms. This tells the subject where they lie in relation to a percentile band or give a more general classification such as a ‘superior’ score through to a ‘poor’ score
TESTS FOR FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility refers to the range of movement of a joint or group of joints. There are two different types: static and dynamic. Static flexibility refers to a range of movement about a joint or joints with little emphasis on speed of movement (eg. gymnast holding the splits on the floor routine) whereas dynamic flexibility is a measure of resistance to motion at a joint and involves speed during performance (eg. a bowler must have sufficient flexibility to be able to bowl a ball efficiently and quickly)
One of the most common flexibility test that measures static flexibility is the sit and reach test. This assesses hamstring and lower back flexibility. It is simple to administer however should be performed following a total body warm-up. It requires the subject to sit on the floor with feet on either side of ruler and sole of feet pressed against the front board. Knees are kept straight & subject bends forwards and, with fingers outstretched, pushes the indicator as far forward as possible. Three readings are taken with the best of the three recorded which is then compared to table of norms.
However, others may prefer the Leighton’s flexometer as it is one of the most accurate instruments to measure flexibility. It is a small instrument that is strapped to a body part (eg. limb, torso or hip joint). It has a needle which points to the opposite direction to gravity and when a person moves a body part, the needle stays upright whilst the face of the flexometer moves indicating the angular displacement in degrees. The measurement gained is then converted to the level of flexibility of the subject for example a person who has a larger angular displacement has a higher level of flexibility.
BODY COMPOSITION
Body composition refers to the proportion of the different types of tissues that contribute to body weight. Tissues representing body composition include skeletal mass, muscle mass and residual mass (or major body organs and intestines), however, in health-related fitness tests, it is most common to assess the fat mass, or adipose tissue, only. Body composition field tests used to assess fat mass include the use of skinfold, infra red, and bioelectrical impedance.
The Skinfold is performed by lightly ‘pinching’ a fold of skin which is measured using a calliper or an instrument used to measure fold of skin and fat by applying at right angles to the fold. The reading is taken approximately two seconds after releasing the calliper’s trigger and the result compared to a table of norms. The common sites used to measure skinfold include triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac (hip).
A common measure used to assess the “level of fatness” is the Body mass index (BMI). This is calculated through the following equation : BMI = weight (kg)/height (m)². From this measure it can be estimated whether a person is underweight, in the normal range, overweight or obese.
Other methods including taking a simple waist measure or using a hip (WHR) formula are less popular as they only measure Abdominal (stomach) fat accumulation or regional fat. The hip (WHR) formula is done through dividing your waist measurement (cm) by your hip measurements (cm) and comparing the result with a table of norms.
Measurements of Skill-Related Physical Fitness .
TESTS FOR ANAEROBIC POWER
Anaerobic power tests designed to assess how much energy produced per unit of time without using oxygen. This usually takes less than a period of 5 seconds to complete. Anaerobic tests such as the Vertical jump, Standing broad jump, Margaria stair climb test and the 40-meter running start (sprint) are essentially measuring power.
The Standing broad jump is performed through attempting to jump the longest possible distance from a standing position. The distance of the jump is measured to the nearest centimetre.
The Vertical jump requires the individual to stand with one side of their body facing a wall with heels together and a piece of chalk in the hand nearest to the wall. Two measurements are taken ; one as the subject reaches as high as possible with heels kept on the floor and the other with the subject jumping as high as possible marking highest point. Distance between standing height and jump height is measured. It is repeated 3 – 5 times & best height is recorded to the nearest centimetre.
AGILITY TESTS
Agility refers to the ability of the body to change its position and/or direction rapidly and efficiently either while stationary or moving quickly. Commonly used agility tests are the Shuttle run, Burpee test and Figure-of-eight.
The Shuttle run assesses subjects ability to accelerate and change direction rapidly. Two parallel lines 9.14m apart are drawn. The Subject is required to sprint from starting line to pick up a block, return and place it on the ground behind starting line and is repeated a second time. The time to complete two pick-ups and put-downs is recorded and compared to a table of norms.
BALANCE TESTS
Refers to ability to maintain equilibrium (equal balance) when body is either stationary (static balance) or moving (dynamic balance). Examples of static balance range from being in a normal standing position to a one-handed handstand whereas dynamic balance examples include waling along the street to moving along a balance beam during a gymnastic competition. Tests for balance include the One-foot balance with eyes open and closed, the One-foot balance after 5 body rotations (eyes open and closed) and the Stork stand. The Stork stand assesses the ability to balance on the ball of the foot. The subject is required to stand on one leg positioning the foot of the other leg against the knee of the supporting leg. The subject raises the heel of the supporting leg placing hands on hips and is timed until subject looses balance. The result gained is then compared against a table of norms.
COORDINATION
Coordination is a gross motor skill (movements of entire body or major segments eg. jumping) that depends on the body’s senses such as sight, sound and reaction time. There are a number of tests used to assess this skill including kicking, throwing and catching. The field test of catching requires subjects to catch a tennis ball that is thrown 2 – 3 meters high from a distance of 15m. It is assessed against performance criteria which includes correct catching method and eye focus.
REACTION TIME
Reaction time refers to the amount of time between receiving an external stimulus and the first movement initiated in response to a stimulus. For example the period of time it takes for a swimmer to leave the starting blocks from the moment the starter’s gun is heard. The reaction time can be either simple or choice. Simple reaction is the reaction time in response to one stimulus whereas choice reaction refers to the reaction time in response to several stimuli for example a soccer player immediately upon receiving a ball has to choose whether to dribble, shoot, or pass the ball. Reaction time may be influenced by several factors including :
- probability and nature of stimulus ( inc. number of choices)
- knowledge probability of the stimulus occurring ( such as readiness & anticipation)
- the nature of the task
- sense of modality (such as visual or auditory) required
- individual differences ( eg. age, gender, personality)
There are a number of fitness tests used to assess reaction time including the ruler test, and forehand test.
The ruler test is an example of a simple reaction. It requires the subject to catch a ruler (with 0 pointing downwards) between the thumb and the index finger as a partner releases it. The measurement on the ruler indicated by the thumb when catching is noted down. The higher the number, the longer the reaction time.
The forehand strike skills test is a measure of choice reaction time. It assesses the ability to strike a ball that has been thrown at waist height from a distance of 5 – 10m using a short handed raquet. The performance criteria is then used to assess the skill which includes correct eye focus, and correct striking method.
Fitness Tests
MEASURING MUSCULAR STRENGTH
Push-up Test
The objective of the Press Up test is to assess the endurance of the athlete's upper body muscles – strength endurance
Procedure :
- Lie on the mat, hands shoulder width apart & fully extend the arms lifting the weight of your body onto your arms and knees
- Lower the body until the elbows reach 90° putting more pressure into the arms
- Return to the starting position with the arms fully extended
- The feet are not to be held
- The push up action is to be continuous with no rest
- Record the total number of possible full body press ups
MEASURING CARDIORESPITORY ENDURANCE
Coopers Run Test
The equipment needed is a 400-metre running track or flat measured circuit, markers and a stopwatch.
Procedure:
- With assistance from a partner, measure the distance covered by walking or running in 12 mins.
- Record the total distance covered to the nearest 100 metres
- use the following equation to find result:
VO2 Max (ml/kg/min) = (35.97 x miles) - 11.29
MEASURING POWER
1 Repetition Maximum (1 RM)
The equipment needed is a barbell and a selection of free weight discs or resistance machines. The 1 RM test uses weights to find the max force a muscle or muscle group can exert in a single effort. Good lifting technique must be learned beforehand as it can be quite dangerous.
Procedure:
- Start with a 15 min warm up
- Lift weight disc or resistance machines using 70% of predicted maximum effort
- Increase the weight in 5-10% increments until failure.
- The last weight lifted is 100% or 1 RM which is then recorded
30m Sprint Fatigue Test
This test requires a stopwatch and 12 cones which are set out similarly to the diagram (right).
1. Sprint from A to B between the cones deviating 5m sideways in the middle of the sprint. Have a training partner start you off and time your sprint from A to B.
2. Jog slowly for 10 meters after point B and then back to the start taking 30 seconds to do so.
3. As soon as you reach the start repeat the sprint.
4. Complete a total of 10 sprints and have your training partner write down all the times.
5. Subtract your fastest time from your slowest time. This is your sprint fatigue.
30m Sprint Test
This test measures your ability to accelerate to full speed quickly, as well as reaction time
1. Set 2 cones 30m apart and start at one cone.
2. Sprint to the other cone as quickly as possible.
3. Have a training partner record your time with a stop watch.
4. Perform 3 trials and take the best time.
Results over 5 seconds is good. Less than 4 seconds is excellent.
MEASURING AGILITY
Illinois Test - Agility
This test measures your ability to change direction quickly (agility)
This test requires 8 cones and a stop watch. The 8 cones are set out correspondingly to the following diagram (right).
Procedure :
- Sprint the course from start to finish and have your training partner record your time.
- Rest fully and repeat the test for a total of 3 trials
- Record fastest time
Hexagon Drill - Quickness
This test measures AGILITY, QUICKNESS AND CO-ORDINATION.
Procedure :
- Mark out a hexagon on the floor with tape or chalk. Each side should be 24 inches long with a 120 degree angle. Avoid hard surfaces such as concrete.
- Stand inside the hexagon opposite one of the sides. Keeping your feet together, jump across the side you are facing and then immediately back into the middle of the hexagon.
- As soon as you land jump over the next side of the hexagon. Continue until you have completed 3 full revolutions of the shape. You can go either clockwise or anticlockwise.
- Time the period taken for you to complete each revolution of the shape with assistance of a partner.
- Record fastest time
FLEXIBILITY TESTS
Trunk Rotation Test
This flexibility test measures trunk and shoulder flexibility.
Procedure :
- Mark a vertical line on the wall. Stand with your back to the wall directly in front of the line. You should be about arms length away from the wall with your feet shoulder width apart.
- Extend your arms out directly in front of you so they are parallel to the floor. Twist your trunk to your right and the touch the wall behind you with your fingertips. Your arms should stay extended and parallel to the floor. You can turn your shoulders, hips and knees as long as your feet don't move.
- Mark the position where your fingertips touched the wall. Measure the distance from the line. A point before the line is a negative score and a point after the line is a positive score.
- Repeat for the left side and find the average of the 2 scores
Groin Flexibility Test
This flexibility test measures groin flexibility.
Procedure :
- Sit on the floor with your knees bent, feet flat on the floor and legs together.
- Let your knees drop sideways as far as possible keeping your feet together. The soles of your feet should be together.
- Clasp your feet with both hands and pull you ankles as close to your body as possible.
- Measure the distance from your heels to your groin and compare the results with the table below