However the CR (salivation) would become extinct if it is repeatedly presented without the UCS (food). This is one of the five important principles of Classical Conditioning – Extinction.
There are four other important principles in Classical Conditioning-
2) Spontaneous Recovery – if the UCR (salivation) is extinguished, it could unexpectedly reappear if the CS is presented after a delay. The extinction needs to occur more than once for this to happen.
2) Generalisation – A dog, which was included in the experement, may salivate to a different bell if it sounds similar to the bell that was used in the experiment. Generalisation is the extension of the CR from the original stimulus to another stimuli that is similar sounding.
4) Discrimination – Bells or buzzers that become too dissimilar to the original bell will no longer elicit the salivating response.
5) When an animal learns a response and it has only had to occur once, this is called One Trial Learning, which is also important in Classical Conditioning. This can also be linked to humans, if one was to drink something and was then to vomit, drinking that drink again would then make them nauseous, as this response has now been conditioned.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning shares many of the same features as Classical Conditioning, but is based on voluntary, non-reflex actions.
In Operant conditioning an animal operates in its own environment and the consequences determine whether or not the action will be repeated. Behaviour can be changed by trial and error if it has been learned.
Skinner devised an experiment whereby he placed a hungry rat or pigeon into a ‘Skinner box’ where there was a lever and a tray of food. In order to obtain the food the animal had to press the lever. The animal would accidentally press the lever as it moved around the box. Skinner noted the number of trials before the animal pressed the lever automatically. Behaviour, which is unpleasant, will not be repeated and behaviour that is pleasant will be repeated. This is because pleasant consequences will strengthen through either positive or negative reinforcement and unpleasant consequences will weaken behaviour through punishment.
There are many different types of reinforces which include the following-
Primary reinforcers – These types of reinforcers are those that satisfy basic needs. For example, hunger and thirst.
Secondary Reinforcers – Those those become associated with primary reinforcers such as the food tray in ‘Skinners box’.
Negative reinforcers – There are two types of negative reinforcement. Escape learning, which is where the animal learns to stop the unpleasantness by pressing the lever. There is also Avoidance learning, which is where the rat avoids the shock by jumping over a barrier when a buzzer is sounded, thus avoiding the shock.
In this experiment the animal used escape learning as Skinner was sending electric shocks through the box and to avoid the shock the animal had to press the lever.
Features of Reinforcement.
Continuous – this is continuous reinforcement which is given each time the behaviour occurs.
Fixed-rate – this is when reinforcement is applied only after a fixed number of times, for example every 8 minutes.
Variable ratio – this is the slowest to extinguish. Reinforcement may be given after every third response, the every fifth, then second etcetera.
Punishment – Punishment is the process by which the behaviour is weakened, as it is a negative reinforcer. Therefore if the rat was to receive an electric shock when it pressed the lever then it is highly unlikely that the rat would repeat the behaviour (press the lever again).
Social Learning Theory.
The learning of behaviour of humans is the main interest of social learning theorists. They look at the uses of cognitive processes such as memory and understanding.
It was Bandura that suggested that humans learn through observation and classical conditioning. He suggests that humans copy other humans that are –
Similar – to our age, sex, attitude, etc.
Appropriate – to our circumstances and us.
Reinforced – those who have been reinforced by others.
Caring – e.g., parents, teachers etc.
Powerful – e.g., parents, teachers, heroes etc.
Punishment.
When it comes to punishment humans do not react the same way as humans according to social learning theorists. They suggest the following.
- When a child is punished, they will not repeat the behaviour whilst being punished, but once the punishment is removed, then the child’s behaviour may well return.
- The child’s relationship between them and the punisher may be harmed.
- It may create anger, fear or a dislikement towards the adult by the child.
- The child may imitate the adult’s act of punishment onto another child.
Behaviourist suggest that acts of punishing and rewarding children should be looked at very carefully, suggesting that we should-
- Reinforce good behaviour and ignore bad.
- Explain to the child why the behaviour is unacceptable.
- Adults should take some of the responsibility for why the child is naughty. E.g., Not giving the child enough attention.
In the treatment of phobias there are many systematic Desensitations -
- Extinguishing – the patient must be exposed to the fear.
- Relaxation – the patient discusses the least most feared thing about the phobia with the therapist. The patient is then helped to relax then is taken through the least fear and up to actually facing the actual fear. (This is a long process).
- Implosion therapy and flooding – This involves the phobic imagining their phobia. Flooding is when the phobic is faced with their fear head on. E.g.. A spider is placed on their arm.
- Aversion therapy – This is to extinguish a particular behaviour from happening, e g an alcoholic may be given a drug, which makes them nauseous when they consume alcohol. Therefore eventually making them stop drinking.
Other types of therapy include-
Latent Learning – When learning takes place but not necessarily with a reward.
Insight Learning – This occurs when a relationship is seen between two things which have not been previously associated.
