Behaviourist Perspective
The third psychological perspective we have studied is behaviourist. There are three psychologists that behaviourist perspective and they had different theories. E.G., Pavlov, his own theory on the behaviourist theory and but Thondike and Skinner are similar because Thorndike started the theory and Skinner developed it. They all studied the same perspective, so the theory for the behaviourist can be associated, reinforcement of learning. For example an infant can be seen as a learning machine, E.G., crying can be reinforced by being picked up.
Operant learning or conditioning was started by Thorndike. Thorndike believed a type of learning also called instrumental conditioning.
Thorndike - carried out a first research on cats and puzzle boxes. He suggested animals learn to associate between the stimuli, for example, being put in a box and response. E.G., pulling the string with the reward e.g., to gain food.
Later Thorndike's theory was further developed by Skinner. Operant conditioning can be referred to behaviour, which operates on environment, in order to produce the outcome. Skinner used an operant chamber, which he called Skinner box. The box with a small lever, which delivered food when pressed by the animal.
The steps were presented like this: -
. Place the rat in the box.
2. Rat explores interior (food deprivation aids exploration and learning).
3. Rat stumbles across the lever and food follows.
4. Animal learns to press lever, this will continue until it's fulfilled.
After these four stages, the concept of trail and error occurs and reinforces behaviour into positive reinforcement, which means 'in rewarded terms'.
This learning process can be speeded by rewarding it earlier, for example, when the rat goes near to the lever, the food is delivered, until the rat has learned to press the lever.
Animals tend to repeat actions, if they are previously rewarded. Animal's behaviour is reinforced. This term is called positive reinforcement. Skinner's theory relies on law of reinforcement, which states 'actions' which are immediately followed of the rewards, which are repeated and learned where as actions or behaviour which are not followed by reinforcement and are dropped.
Positive reinforces can be primary, in other terms the rein forcers is naturally already occurring, E.G., food which is a need to satisfy our physical needs. Secondary rein forcers nurture, this is when things have been learned and worth getting.
Varying rein forcers
The five major schedules can be used by: -
* Continuous- this is reinforcement every time; it extinguishes the behaviour very quickly.
* Fixed ratio- regular, for example every 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, time.
* Variable ratio- constantly altered.
* Fixed interval- this is made after a fixed number of minutes, which can once be a correct response that has been made.
* Variable interval- this is the time between reinforcement, which is varied.
Extinction- Skinner, found that is was difficult to extinguish conditioning if the animal was not rewarded after every time the animal made a correct response.
Operant conditioning- is when a negative reinforces which tends to extinguish the response. If the rat is shocked every time it presses the lever then it would stop.
Operant conditioning
Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is based on the terms of reinforcing particular behaviours. Subjects behave in some sort of way which is followed by some rewarded also associates its behaviour with 'reward', this is learned to repeat this.
Skinner had argued learning is caused by the consequences of our own actions. This means people learn to associate actions with pleasure or discomfort, which follows, by the action, so if a child puts food in its mouth which is enjoyed then the child is more likely to repeat the action. If another didn't enjoy the food in the future. This shows that a child learns from its experiences.
Skinner used the term operant to describe behaviour, which can create learned outcomes. Operant conditioning is used to demonstrate learning consequences of action. Skinner believed learning could be ...
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Skinner had argued learning is caused by the consequences of our own actions. This means people learn to associate actions with pleasure or discomfort, which follows, by the action, so if a child puts food in its mouth which is enjoyed then the child is more likely to repeat the action. If another didn't enjoy the food in the future. This shows that a child learns from its experiences.
Skinner used the term operant to describe behaviour, which can create learned outcomes. Operant conditioning is used to demonstrate learning consequences of action. Skinner believed learning could be explained using the idea of reinforcement. Reinforcement means to make it stronger. A reinforces is anything that makes the negative reinforces fall into these two areas, which are: -
. Escape learning
* Rats cage has a mild electric shock running through the floor- the rat will find this unpleasant.
* Pressing the lever turns off the current- rat accidentally hits the lever and turns off the current.
* After the time is passed, the current is switched back on; the rat learns to press the lever as soon as the current, which is switched on.
2.Avoidance
* The buzzer sounds before the electric current is switched on.
* The rat learns to associates the buzzer with the electric current.
* The rat learns the lever as soon as it hears the buzzer.
In both areas, escape and avoidance learning response is reinforced by withdrawal of un pleasant stimulus. Learning is relatively permanent change of behaviour, which occurs as a result from experience.
'Relatively permanent' has been used because no one would say or suggest that they have learned something, if they forgotten again at the next minute! also at the same time, we all do forget things, so 'relatively' allows for that. When we talk of a change in behaviour, we are back to the problem.
We cannot see people's minds, so we can't see what they've learned. The things that we learn usually turns up in our behaviour somewhere, E.G., even if it's only telling a friend about it (verbal behaviour). In some sort of way, our behaviour will change as a result of what we've learned and call learning 'change in behaviour'. Also doing this we are putting forward some sort of definition that includes animals as well as humans.
Most of early work that was done on learning was to do with the basis processes by associations, which are learned. Not all learning is a result of prior experience. Young children learn to walk, which is a result of practice. Many things are learnt this way.
Children learn through:
* Repeating actions
* Making observations
* Observing and copying others.
The three main theories, which explain some of children are learning, are through: -
* Classical conditioning
* Operant or instrumental conditioning
* Social learning theory
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Pavlov studied digestion in dogs. He had some dogs arranged in a harness, with equipment such as to be able to measure how much saliva they would produce when they were fed, and how digestion changed as this occurred. Pavlov noticed that the dogs started to salivate when they started eating, the dogs would begin to salivate when they saw the assistant with the bucket of food coming near and approaching them. It was found clear that they had learned to associate the sight of the bucket with the arrival of the food. Also Pavlov was able to demonstrate that the dogs would salivate whenever they heard a noise always happened just before the food was being served. The dogs had learned to associate the sound of the bell with the served food.
We all become aware of something, which is called a stimulus, and some have a reaction to it, which is called a response.
This learning of association is called conditioning.
Application of learning theories to problem behaviour
'Problem a suggestion that most behaviour which is learned. Children at any early age who tend to fail to learn skills that they need, for example, social and emotional skills, tend to be aggressive and tend to have not learned to control destructive feelings'.
Behaviour modification
Operant learning from Skinner, which is widely used. The emphasis is on desired behaviour to be rewarding with praise and ignoring the behaviour problem. The termed modification of behaviour is in order to modify behaviour, which is important to: -
. Define behaviour, which needs reducing E.G., running round the classroom.
2. Identify and define behaviour that we want increasing E.G., sitting still.
3. Identify what is reinforcing the problem behaviour E.G., becoming centre of attention.
4. Try to change it by ignoring or punishing the undesired response and try to reinforce the desired behaviour by praise.
Eventually the child should realise is it necessary to sit down. The child may then learn to sit for long periods of time.
Consistency is vital to all adults, which must adapt the same approach, which is adapted both at school and at home.
The approach is therefore to: -
* Make experiments as to what is expected of the child for each period.
* Ignore behaviours which interfere with learning, a punishment must be withdrawal of some positive reinforces.
* To give praise and attention to behaviours which encourage learning to tell the child why it is being praised.
Modelling therapy
This is based on social and observational learning. The child is shown examples of desired behaviour and sees others being rewarded for the types of behaviour. People behaving in an unacceptable manner will be shown as being punished.
The example can be characters in books, TV/films; role-plays watching peoples behaviour such as children and adults.
Evaluation
The perspective and the theory on behaviourist, for me was amusing and interesting. This approach on behaviourist was quite difficult to write about. There was quite a lot of information on the behaviourist approach, as any other approach, but I found that more books on the theories, but I decided to use notes from the few classes attended as well as a few books. I decide to tone down the information because I found quite a lot of information on the psychoanalytical theory, and I think I know that I should have not written so much, I feel like I did repeat myself in the psychoanalytical task. This is a negative and a positive approach to the following and present perspectives because I think I am writing the right amount and not repeating myself so much.
We can express the behaviourist perspective as associations, reinforcement of learning.
I decided to write in my evaluation the assumptions and basic principles as well as contributions of behaviourism.
Assumptions and basic principles
* Behaviourism is scientific because it's 'done' in a labotory under strict control.
* Watson considered radical behaviourist
* Pavlov and Skinner are rather less dogmatic behaviourists (as are Hull and Tollman).
* Behaviourism is more American than European.
* What is important is not what people think, but how they behave.
* The key notion is the stimulus- response (s-r) link.
* Complex responses are merely combinational of smaller S-R links.
* Responses to stimuli can be reflexive (as in a knee jerk) or learned.
* Learning occurs through a process of conditioning, which is the mechanism by which behaviour is changed or shaped.
* Watson and Pavlov use classical conditioning (that is, reflexive).
* Skinner argued that the consequences of the behaviour are important. This operant conditioning.
* In operant conditioning, reinforcement plays an important part.
* Reinforcement is the way in which a learned response is strengthened so that will happen again. It can be positive- as when a child is given a reward for good behaviour-or negative- when bad behaviour is ignored (not punished).
* Punishment can be seen as positive reinforces, as it pays attention to bad behaviour and therefore (may) reinforce it.
* The basic principles of behaviourism hold for all the species, therefore studying one species has relevance to other species.
Contributions
* Behaviourism, in its various forms, has been a major influence in many areas; motivation and therapy are just two.
* Classical conditioning approaches are used in therapy.
* Systematic destination, where the person is slowly introduced to the thing that they fear in order to overcome it, is a classic form of classical conditioning.
* Flooding and implosion, two techniques that are used for therapy, are applications of classical principles. They both 'flood' the person with the behaviour- particularly the phobia- that the client wishes to overcome.
* Operant conditioning is used to shape desired behaviours, or to cause undesired behaviours to become extinct.
* Behaviour modification (or behaviour therapy) uses operant principles. It is the process by which the person's behaviour is changed.
* Aversion therapy is a form of behaviour modification. It uses unpleasant or painful stimuli to change the person's behaviour.
* 'Token economy' is an example of behaviour modification that can be used in education or therapy. It works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with a token- often-plastic counter-, which can then be exchanged for the real reward.
* Programmed learning relies on operant principles. In this method of learning, a predetermined number of steps require correct answers at each step before progressing. More able students can skip certain steps, allowing faster learning.
I decided to write the assumptions and the basic principles, and contributions on behaviourism because it has relevant information and shows you a perspective on behaviourist as well as the theories on Skinner and Pavlov and Watson who we have not really studied.
The strengths of the theories can be the use of scientific objective methods like the experiments and controlled observation. It is stated and shown on the assumptions and basic principles on behaviourism. Behaviourism is scientific because it is 'done' in a labotory under strict control. This is a from of psychology book, which is called 'Success in Psychology', written by Twinina.K.
It also recognises the importance of the environment on human behaviour. This is shown in Skinner's theory of operant conditioning which refers to behaviour that the environment in order to produce the outcome. This applies to the animals that Skinner did the experiments, but we can also recognise the importance of human behaviour from operant conditioning. This is where Skinner based on reinforcing particular behaviours. The behaviours how we follow from E.G., reward, which associates behaviour with the 'reward', learn to repeat.
We recognise the importance of the environment on human behaviour from Skinner's theory by what he argued of the learning to associate actions with pleasure and discomfort, which does follow from the actions.
This shows that from a type of environment you around it do have a response to your behaviour. This can also mean that the people you are around, what type of people they are, they have a great influence who you are going to be, the way you turn out to be as a person.
It has shown the two different types of learning of principle which apply to both animals and humans, this is shown as identification that Skinner's types of learning is operant learning which is involved with animals and operant conditioning is involved with humans.
Pavlov studied a learning called classical conditioning, which involved animals (dogs).
The theories have developed therapeutic and educational applications. This can be expressed from my knowledge that the therapeutic side of the side of the study, is you can try out and experiment what Pavlov and Skinner did to look at how animals response to these learning's. This can show that you imitated and learned the physical way. The educational can also come from the therapeutic because you are also learning the theories. An educational response could be that you study the books on the Pavlov and Skinner and become fully aware of the two theories and what you have learned from them.
The weaknesses can be that the two theories ignored emotions, motivation and drives in people because these cannot be observed.
This weakness can only be from Skinners theory because he studied humans. The learning is operant conditioning, Skinner saw people response to whatever to be tested, on, this was only shown by the stimuli but a reaction of the response but no other, E.G., emotions and motivation because these could not be observed.
Skinner only saw how humans behave which is followed a reward and learn to repeat it. For example the child puts sweet in its mouth and enjoyed then the child tends to repeat the action. This shows that the emotions, motivation and drives were ignored, because you could not see how the person reacts to the subject.
The same that it presents very mechanisms views on humans on just passive receivers of stimuli.
I have learned quite a fair bit on behaviourist perspective and its theories. I found it rather difficult to write about but I think it was a result of lack of concentration as well as not spending enough time on the theories of the behaviourist perspective. Overall I think I have a basic knowledge on the theories and determined to study it more to make myself aware on how the theories concepts and points. This would help me in my further assignments and understanding of the subject.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cullis, Tracy, etal. (1999) Psychology for you, Stanly Thornes, publishers limited, Cheltenham.
Twinina, Keith (2001) Success in psychology, John Murray, publisher limited, London.