Research methods used by this approach are experimental (as it is a very scientific method) and observation as it is very objective and analytical especially in the study of behaviour. Animals are used in research as by using different species (whichever being the closest neurologically or physiologically to humans depending on what is specifically being researched) the need for human “guinea pigs” is dramatically decreased.
Behaviourism does not account for other ways in which animals learn e.g. insight learning. It is however extremely scientific and measurable.
Behaviourism influenced later psychologists such as Albert Bandura.
Psychoanalytic
This school of thought focused on the importance of the unconscious mind (not consciousness). In other words, psychoanalytic perspective dictates that behaviour is determined by your past experiences.
Sigmund Freud founded this field and has become synonymous with psychology.
He speculated that there were a number of that protect the conscious mind from those aspects of reality it may find difficult to accept. The major defence mechanism is repression, which induced a “forgetfulness” for harsh realities. Observing the relationship between psychoneurosis and repressed memories, Freud made conscious recognition of these forgotten experiences the foundation of psychoanalytic therapy. Hypnosis was the earliest method used to probe the unconscious, but due to its limited effectiveness, it was soon discarded in favour of free . , which Freud interpreted as symbolic wish fulfilments, were considered a primary key to the unconscious, and their analysis was an important part of Freudian therapy.
The psychoanalytical theory suggests that the human personality system consists of the id, ego, and the superego. The id is the source of psychic energy and seeks immediate gratification for biological and instinctual needs. The superego represents societal or personal norms and serves as an ethical constraint on behaviour. The ego mediates the hedonistic demands of the id and the moralistic prohibitions of the superego. Although considered only partly conscious, the ego constitutes the major part of what is commonly referred to as . The interaction of these elements results in unconscious motivations that are manifested in observed human behaviour.
Psychoanalysis focuses on early childhood, theorising that many of the conflicts that arise in the human mind develop in the first years of a person's life. Freud demonstrated this in his theory of psychosexuality, in which the libido (sexual energy) of the infant progressively seeks outlet through different body zones (oral, anal, phallic, and genital) during the first five to six years of life. If any of these stages are not dealt with properly at the time, on becoming an adult, they will become fixated with that particular body zone e.g. unsatisfied oral stage would result in excessive smoking, drinking, talking, etc (anything based around the mouth).
The research method used by psychoanalysts tended to be interviews and retrospective case studies. Freud’s research was not based on a wide spectrum of subjects, rather it was solely based on middle-aged, Viennese women who all had severe mental illnesses. Also there was no scientific basis to any of Freud’s claims. He did though, give the first detailed explanation of personality development and has influenced numerous subsequent psychologists including Jung and Adler.
Humanistic
The focus of the humanistic perspective is on the self, which translates into "you", and "your" perception of "your" experiences. Behaviourism was viewed as being too “simple” and the humanistic school grew from this. Humanists argue that you are free to choose your own behaviour, rather than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers. Issues dealing with self-esteem, self-fulfilment, and needs are paramount. The major focus is to facilitate personal development. Two major theorists associated with this view are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Carl Rogers feels that each person operates from a unique frame of reference in terms of building self regard or their self concept. Self concept is someone's own belief about himself or herself. These beliefs stem, in part, from the notion of unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard occurs when individuals, especially parents, demonstrate unconditional love. Conditioned positive regard is when that love seems to only come when certain conditions are met. Rogers’s theory states that psychologically healthy people enjoy life to the fullest, hence, they are seen as fully functioning people. This school uses client centred therapy where the therapist provides the unconditional positive regard.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used for a long time as a framework for classifying basic motivations. It states that needs are organised in such a way as to establish priorities and hierarchies of importance. According to his theory there are five levels of needs ranging in priority from lowest to highest order. Each higher order is largely dormant until lower level needs are satisfied.
Self–actualisation
Esteem
Belongingness and love
Safety needs
Physiological needs
According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the needs must be achieved in order. For instance, one would be unable to fulfil their safety needs if their physiological needs have not been met.
This approach embraces individual experiences and as such is a much more detailed approach to the understanding of individuals actions as it doesn’t generalise. A criticism of this theory would be that it doesn’t recognise mental illness and views it simply as a result of a lack of communication. Its influence in today’s society is rather limited as modern psychologists find its concepts too vague to be expressed or tested scientifically.
This school influenced such psychologists as Carol Rodgers and Allport.
Four Main Branches of Psychology
Academic
This branch tries to further psychological theory by examining previous viewpoints and perspectives and attempting to construct new theories to advance the science. They generally work in university and private research centres, and in business, non profit, and governmental organisations. They study behaviour processes with human beings and animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of study in experimental academic research include motivation, thinking, attention, learning and memory, sensory and perceptual processes, effects of substance abuse, and genetic and neurological factors affecting behaviour.
There are two types of research, pure (done solely for knowledge’s sake) and applied (done in order to address a specific problem and usually funded.)
To work in the academic field you would need to be a psychology graduate.
Clinical
Clinical psychologists deal with the whole range of abnormal behaviour, in both diagnosis, often using psychological tests, and in treatment, by both physical means such as (in conjunction with medics) and individual or group . A special contribution of clinical psychology is behaviour therapy, which is based on principles of conditioning and learning, and . A patient with a phobia about dogs, for example, might be "desensitised" by a series of rewards for getting closer and closer to dogs in non-threatening situations.
The qualifications required for this branch are an accredited first degree and three years post-graduate training.
Educational
Educational psychologists deal with all sorts of individual problems, such as slow learning, , various disabilities, school phobia, etc. Like clinical psychologists, they often use tests in diagnosis—but are less often concerned with treatment, which may rather involve remedial teachers, social workers, and nurses or doctors. is also applied to the whole range of ability: those at the upper "gifted" end also need special consideration to meet their needs, or they risk becoming frustrated or isolated.
More generally, educational psychologists may advise on educational programmes, methods of selection and examination, and so on, or conduct research into methods of teaching and learning.
Educational psychology requires a post-graduate qualification in educational or child psychology.
Industrial
Industrial psychologists serve many roles. They may work on hiring staff through testing and interviewing, on developing training courses, and on maintaining good employee relations and communications. They may function as management consultants, advising on structures and procedures within an organisation, or they may be involved with .
can also be used in consumer research. This may be for marketing purposes or involve sampling attitudes and opinions, often for the mass media or for political parties or the government. Consumer research is not an exclusively psychological activity but psychologists are often engaged in it.
The qualifications required for this branch are a post-graduate with specialist experience e.g. in advertising.
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