Habit is one reason why change is resisted. Individuals respond to situations in an accustomed manner. They serve the means of comfort and security. So when confronted with change the individuals’ habits and customs are threatened. An example of this would be the relocation of an office into a new, more spacious building. The individual may be forced to travel a little further the new location, or may need to adjust to the new layout of the office, find new locations to park their car, etc. These causes inconvenience to the individual, thus not being comfortable in the new surroundings and leading to poor job performance.
Also if a change in an organisation is seen as a loss in freedom of the individual, then the implications towards senior authorities can be very negative and hostile. A prime example is a real group of individuals working for a reputable high-class bank, J.P & Morgan. There was a monitor put on the e-mails sent between colleagues in the employees’ spare time at work. This was seen as a constraint on their freedom to express their feelings towards others (as the e-mails tended to be of a humorous nature, however they were not perceived to be humorous by the managers), and this de-motivated employees’ as they did not feel that they could break away from the pressure of their work, (at their break times) and that they were being treated as children, and constantly under surveillance.
Individuals with a high need of security are also likely to resist change, as it threatens their feelings of safety. This was the case when Ford announced the introduction of new robotic equipment; many employees feared that their jobs were in jeopardy.
The main reason to resistance to change would be the fear of the unknown. The reason for this is that it causes anxiety and fear within the individual, and increases in ambiguity, and uncertainty. An example of this is when TQM is introduced, and employees are required to learn statistical process techniques. Some may fear they may not be able to cope with the extra stress, and therefore develop negative attitudes towards TQM or behave in a dysfunctional manner if required to use statistical techniques.
Ability of an individual is an important factor when considering change. Different occupations require different skills, competencies, and mental abilities. The ‘happy’ scenario suggests that there should be a match between an individual’s occupation and personal abilities. However the extremes suggest that employees become bored with tedious, repetitive tasks, which leads to a careless view towards attitudes, and a succession of mistakes. If an individual i.e. a manger is promoted beyond their capability then they are prone to be under stress, either from subordinates or colleagues. It can be assumed that a person’s ability is dependent upon two main factors: intellectual and physical.
Managers need to identify individual intellectual abilities within an organisation. This may be done by means of intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, or business tests (GMAT) and (LSAT) when measuring ability in law. The seven most cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are number aptitude, memory, spatial visualisation, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning and verbal comprehension. The reason for testing is basically to help individuals achieve their full potential, and to introduce training to individuals who can’t cope with demands at work. The main dilemma faced by employers who use these tests for selection, promotion, and personnel decisions purposes, is that it has a negative impact on racial and ethnic minorities.
Physical abilities have greater importance in doing less-skilled, and more standardised. Key examples are jobs in which success demands stamina, leg strength, dexterity, and general physical capabilities. There are nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. These are split into three categories: strength, flexible, and general.
Strength factors are based on dynamic, trunk and static abilities. These basically entail consistent muscular power over time, abdominal strength, energy and exertion of forces. This may be a problem for various individuals if changed over a period of time. For example a pregnant women working in a factory with a minimal level of manual labour may not be able to handle the change as they may feel more tired, worn-out, and tense (due to hormones).
Flexibility factors state the extent to which an individual is dynamically flexible. We can take an example of an office junior, if he is overweight and is made to run around to different departments to do minor tasks; the individual may not be the right person for the job. This is due to the lack of speed, and agility, of the individual thus affecting the individual emotionally and achieving low self-esteem. This would have a knock on effect on the organisation, as goals and objectives may not be accomplished. Interlinked with flexibility and strength are factors of balance, physical stamina, and co-ordination towards the job in hand.
Personality is the heart of individual differences. Gordon Allport defined personality as ‘ the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. Essentially it is the way in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, and the approaches related with them.
Linda Hicks (1996) established that there were two core theories related with personality, the first being Nomothetic. This ideology suggests that the, characterises of personality are inherited from an individual’s parents. Their views are strongly influenced by the way in which they have been bought up and, have similar attitudes and values as their parents. The nomothetic doesn’t believe that the change in environment or surroundings has a great implication on an individual’s personality.
The idiographic theory on the other hand has a strong emphasis on personalities being moulded from experience and environment, and having innate characteristics. It suggests that the environment and experiences encountered an individual’s life, has a great role in shaping their personalities. For instance, culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values, which are conceded from generation to generation. They have beliefs in the cultures that they have been exposed to, and they generate certain personality characteristics.
Managers need to recognise both forms of differences, so that they can understand individuals’ views and cultures. For example within the organisation there are many different religions, by which certain employees abide by (due to culture). Now if they wear a certain type of headgear e.g. a Turban (Sikh) and a change was introduced that uniforms which restricted wearing of headgear. Mangers must adapt their frame of mind to appreciate and respect their beliefs.
Within an organisation there are many different personality types and they vary between individuals. Hippocrates stated four basic types of personality that an individual could be classified under. A confident, optimistic person can be considered to have a Sanguine personality. These types of people thrive on challenges and can handle changes within an organisation. They don’t ‘bottle-up’ under pressure, and aspire to reach new levels. These types of individuals are exceptionally important within an organisation as they motivate others (colleagues) and create a positive atmosphere to work in (managers).
Other personality types include Phlegmatic and Melancholic. These types of individuals may tend to be more ‘laid-back’, and apathetic. They may also have a tendency to get depressed and be pessimistic. This is no good for an organisation as they cannot meet targets and goals, and have a negative impact to change within the organisations.
Choleric personalities tend to be aggressive and irritable. This may be harmful to a business. If an individual cannot handle changes in a controlled manner and they lash out at employees, the employees may not respond positively. They may gain a low self esteem and feel as though they are being targeted thus leading to isolation, depression and fear. This could also lead to absenteeism. In addition to this, if the aggression is directed to the customer then the whole company’s reputation is at steak.
Trait theories developed by Carl Gustav Jung also play a key factor in personality as they set out different dimensions of attitudes of individuals. Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality was split into four categories. The first stated whether an individual was an introvert or an extrovert. Extroverts were seen to be very socially outgoing, freethinking (thus easily adapting to change) and possessed good communication skills.
On the other hand introverts were more reserved, and diligent, they also had tendencies to work alone. This is not a good personality to have within a changing organisation, as they cannot handle change and have great difficulty in coping with interruptions and noise.
The intuitor is an imaginative problem-solver who thrives on new ideas for the development of an organisation. This type of person can be a task leader, as they would achieve objectives for the firm.
The senser is very practical, systematic, and patient personality trait. They have a tendency to lose sight of the actual task in hand and can get very frustrated at times.
An individual that has feelings emphasises on other employees rather than objects. They are guided by emotion, thus not analysing issues objectively. They can persuade employees into changes, and identify their personal needs.
A thinker is logical, analytical, and vital within a company. Nevertheless they can be intensive and insensitive to other people’s views and values. This makes others feel useless, and transparent so their observations are discarded.
An employee who has a perceiver personality can see all sides to a dilemma and they are flexible in their approach.
A manager who has a Judger personality can be decisive, orderly, and traditional in their approach. They are quick decision makers, but tend to dominate their own ideas.
Freud (1856-199) attributed that childhood experience, i.e. if a child was a bully when they were growing up they carry these traits on through their personality (within the workplace), due to their ego and superego.
The belief in the locus of control for an individual is a vital personality attribute. Individuals with an internal locus believe that they control their destiny, and leave all decisions up to faith. These types of individuals perceive their jobs to be less stressful, therefore handling changes in structure, and production more effectively. Type A individuals need high levels of control and autonomy within the organisation. If they have an external locus of control then they are said to have a Type B personality. Externals are more likely to be defensive and passive with stressful situations. They have a low degree of control and need a structured environment to work in. within demanding situations rather than alleviating the stress the just accept it, thus achieving low moral, and self-esteem.
The final category of individual differences is interlinked between attitudes values and perception. Attitudes can be peripheral – effortlessly adjusting to change, or cognitive- more difficult to change. Heider suggested that it was uncomfortable to hold two conflicting attitudes, but to overcome this one attitude must change to reach a balanced state. Cognitive dissonance is a discomfort felt by an individual when they aren’t true to their beliefs. Group norms can also affect Id’s, as it is peer pressure from colleagues and, the individual needs to make decisions that are seen to be acceptable by the whole group.
Perception is ‘how we view and interpret events, and situations in the world around us’ Brookes (1999). It demonstrates that employees react to their perception of reality, rather than reality itself. Therefore a person may be in fear of being made redundant due to company circumstances, whereas another employee would perceive this as an opportunity to receive a substantial severance allowance, therefore setting up a new business.
Overall the organisation, as we know today is constantly changing. It is how mangers and individuals react to these changes. Managers need to encourage and motivate employees so that critical organisational goals can be achieved. The working environment must be set out t ensure all individuals can cope and work efficiently without stress. The managers need to deal with employee complaints and needs and they need to understand the individual differences. Morgan suggests that managers need to increase skill and competence in dealing with new challenge. They need to develop a proactive management attitude to encompass different personalities, attitudes, and abilities. Basically everybody in the world is unique in very different ways and they carry these differences into their working life, so other mangers, colleagues, and individuals need to understand and assist these traits to optimise the organisation as a whole.
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