In this essay the biological, cognitive and the psychodynamic approach will be explored and compared on how they explain human behaviour.
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Compare and contrast three psychological approaches to explaining human behaviour
An approach is a perception that consists of specific principles about human behaviour. Each approach can have different theories within itself but, they will all emphasise on particular assumptions (Glassman & Hadad, 2013). In this essay the biological, cognitive and the psychodynamic approach will be explored and compared on how they explain human behaviour.
Charles Darwin may have been a biologist but his book Origin of species had massive repercussions on our knowledge on genetic inheritance (Darwin, 2013). His finding led to psychologists divulging further, which is now identified as the biological approach. The biological approach seeks to explain behaviour through four different means – the brain, genes, the nervous system (neurotransmitters) and the endocrine system (hormones). It prepossesses that abnormal behaviour can be explained through the functioning of the biological system (Dwyer & Charles, 2003). This approach places key emphasis on inherited genes that make us more susceptible to certain conditions i.e. schizophrenia (Sammons, n.d.).
Whether it be the comparative method (Harvery & Pagel, 1991) where we study animals in order to find out more about ourselves or, physiology where we look at our hormones or studies into our inheritance via twin studies they can all explain our behaviour. The brain can be examined through many methods such as CAT scans, X-rays etc. (Collin, et al., 2012).
Gottesman looked at twin’s studies and the likelihood of the other twin developing schizophrenia. Evaluation of twin studies revealed 48% concordance for monozygotic (MZ; identical) twins and only 17% for dizygotic (DZ; fraternal) twins. Gottesman also reported that the concordance rate for identical twins raised apart was very similar to that for identical twins raised together—suggesting that the high concordance rate for identical twins is not due to being treated in a similar way at home (Gottesman & Shield, 1976).
Gottesman’s findings provide strong evidence towards genetic studies and is key in the nature vs nurture debate, as genetics is a clear determinant. Nonetheless, the study is very reductionist because the concordance rate is not 100%, showing that genes alone do not cause schizophrenia. Instead it provides evidence that genetics puts you at a higher risk of developing the condition. The genetic explanation is deterministic as it implies that those with a genetic susceptibility have a higher risk of schizophrenia, which overlooks free will.
The cognitive approach focuses on the internal mental processes and structures in cognition (Fulcher, 2003). It emphases on how people perceive, understand, evaluate and think, making an impact on how they behave (Eysenck, 1994). An example of cognition would be you reading this essay, either because you have to mark it, or trying to copy. Many internal processes have guided you to this and are allowing you to translate these words into information.
Cognitive psychologists use scientific, controlled methods for researching behaviour. Brains are compared to computer’s, where information can be manipulated. Based on the computer analogy, cognitive psychology is interested in how the brain inputs, stores and outputs information (Fulcher, 2003). Alongside the scientific methods they use cognitive therapy which according to Beck “By correcting erroneous beliefs, we can lower excessive reactions” (Tomley, 2017). Cognitive therapy places an importance on investigating people’s perceptions of their experiences and correcting the thought pattern to how a condition manifests itself in a patient’s perceptions (Summers & Jacques, 2010).
Festinger gained access to a cult who believed the world was going to end. Once the date he assumed that they would no longer believe in their predictions. However, cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1962) occurred and the strongest followers convinced themselves that the apocalypse did not occur because their faith was so strong. These cult members could not accept their mistakes as this would cause further inconsistency. In order to validate their behaviour, they created new evidence to support their previous beliefs (Festinger, et al., 2008). A man with conviction is a hard man to change (Saigal, 2012).
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Festinger gained access to a cult who believed the world was going to end. Once the date he assumed that they would no longer believe in their predictions. However, cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1962) occurred and the strongest followers convinced themselves that the apocalypse did not occur because their faith was so strong. These cult members could not accept their mistakes as this would cause further inconsistency. In order to validate their behaviour, they created new evidence to support their previous beliefs (Festinger, et al., 2008). A man with conviction is a hard man to change (Saigal, 2012).
The term “psychodynamic” refers to the way in which mental forces governs our personality (Heffner, n.d.). The psychodynamic approach focuses on the psychic determinism (Angel, 1959) which believes that our behaviour has a root cause, and that root is located within the unconscious mind. The main assumption is that childhood experiences is a powerful influence for our behaviour later on in our life (Freud, 1962).
Our psyche is made up of 3 segments called the tripartite (Sappenfield, 1954). The id is the only part of our personality structure that exists from birth. It’s the foundation for our instinctual needs, especially our sexual and aggressive drives (Greenacre, 1973). The id acts accordingly to the pleasure principle (Freud, 2003) meaning humans are motivated towards satisfaction and deterred by pain. The id has no concept of good, evil or even moral just the fundamental demand for pleasure. The ego works according to the reality principle (Freud, 2003). The ego is similar to the id in that it seeks pleasure but will rationalise to obtain it. Finally, the superego (Elchoness, 1988) which rationalises all our instinctual drives that do not conform with social norms. The superego consists of two parts: the conscience and the ideal self. The role of the conscience is to punish ourselves with feelings of shame if the ego surrenders to the id’s pressures. The ideal self is our interpretation of how we should be retrospective of our environment (Eysenck, 1994).
Sigmund Freud a pioneer of the psychodynamic, dedicated his work to psychoanalysis. Freud assumed that behaviour was based on biological innate drives (Wilson, 2012). Freud said that we are driven by two instinctual drives. Firstly, the Eros drive (life instinct and sexual drive) which is concerned with the preservation of life (Cherry, 2017). The Thanatos drive (death & aggressive drive) is in opposition to the Eros drive but if left to deviate would lead to extinction - both drives derive from the id (Cherry, 2017).
Freud’s method to treat patients is known as psychoanalysis which works on the idea that when memories are too powerful for the conscious mind they become repressed. They become stored in the unconscious, where they are not available by our immediate consciousness. Thus, making the unconscious silently influence our behaviour. The disagreements between our unconscious and conscious thoughts create conflict within ourselves known as psychic tension. The only way to release psychic tension is allowing repressed memories into the consciousness through psychoanalysis (Ward, 2014). During therapy, a therapist will act as a mediator, allowing the thoughts in our unconscious come to the surface through dream analysis (Sharpe, 1988) or Freudian slips (Freud, 2012).
A case study which influenced Freud was The Case of Anna O. Dr Breuer worked with “Anna” who experienced hysteria. During psychoanalysis, it became clear that she had acquired a phobia of drinking after a dog sipped from her glass. Other symptoms started when looking after her father. During discussions, it became apparent that she was suffering from anxiety towards the illness. Once these unconscious thoughts became conscious her paralysis stopped. (Cherry, 2017)
The key limitation to this study is that it is not scientific therefore, it cannot be generalised. Everything relies on retrospective information which then has to be interpreted. Undoubtedly, we cannot deny that psychoanalysis cured Anna’s hysteria.
Although biological and psychodynamic approaches have very different methods for diagnosing, for example, the biological is nomothetic and wholly scientific whereas, the psychodynamic is idiographic and makes assumptions on case studies which are open to interpretation. There are some similarities, such as they are both too reductionist as they explain behaviour in too simple terms, ignoring free will. However, the psychodynamic approach does allow for some movement on this nurture debate as believes some behaviour can be learnt during the psychosexual stages. On the whole, disorders such as depression, they both have made great strides in treatments and have very successful rates of recovery. Whether that be medication such as Prozac from the biological or talking therapy from the psychodynamic.
The biological approach takes the nature side of the debate as it believes we are an outcome of our genes, implying we have no free will. Whereas, the cognitive approach is also scientific as it can be measured, but it advocates that schemas are learnt so therefore we become a product of our upbringing. On the other hand, in the cognitive approach when comparing our mind to a computer it suggests we have no free will either. Both approaches ignore psychological and social factors however, cognitive only does this to a certain extent.
Finally, when comparing the cognitive and psychodynamic approach there are substantial similarities and vast differences. Both consider nature and nurture as part of an explanation for behaviour such as, the cognitive suggests that nature is mental processes i.e. memory and the nurture is schemas. For the psychodynamic nature is id, ego and superego but the nurture is sexual phases. Psychodynamic and cognitive agree that our behaviour is predetermined. Psychodynamic pinpoints it to the tripartite personality whereas, cognitive states that it is predetermined for us in mental processing. Both approaches provide qualitative data by using idiographic approaches in their methodologies. One of the major differences between the two is that cognitive takes a more scientific understanding and believes research should use clear variables and testable hypothesis. Whereas, Freud’s theories have no testable hypotheses so cannot be considered in a scientific way. For example, he claimed all girls have penis envy of their fathers but in no way, be proven objectively.
In conclusion, no approach is without its imperfections. But what is universal, is their extraordinary contributions towards psychology and its place as a science. While biological and cognitive are purely sciences and nobody can argue with evidence, the psychodynamic is a form of art which when interpreted correctly can transform an individual’s behaviour. They all have a place when explaining behaviour but we are all unique and our experiences cannot be replicated making it impossible to have an explanation for everyone.
References
Angel, R. W., 1959. The Concept of Psychic Determinism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 116(5), pp. 405-408.
Cherry, K., 2017. Anna O's Life and Impact on Psychology. [Online]
Available at: https://www.verywell.com/who-was-anna-o-2795857
Cherry, K., 2017. Freud's Life and Death Instincts. [Online]
Available at: https://www.verywell.com/life-and-death-instincts-2795847
[Accessed 29 October 2017].
Collin, C. et al., 2012. The Psychology Book. UK Edition ed. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.
Darwin, C., 2013. Origin of Species. s.l.:CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Dwyer, D. & Charles, C., 2003. Revise Key Topics in A2 Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press Ltd.
Dwyer, D. & Charles, C., 2003. The Biological Approach. In: S. Edition, ed. Revise Key Topics in A2 Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press Ltd, pp. 308-309.
Elchoness, M., 1988. Sigmund Says: a Lighter Look at Freud Through His Id, Ego, and Super-Ego. s.l.:Monroe Press.
Eysenck, M. W., 1994. Perspectives on Psychology. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
Festinger, L., 1962. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L., Riecken, H. & Schachter, S., 2008. When Prophecy Fails. London: Pinter & Martin Ltd.
Freud, S., 1962. The Ego and the Id. Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud ed. London: W. W. Norton & Company.
Freud, S., 2003. Beyond the Pleasure Principle and Other Writings. London: Penguin Group.
Freud, S., 2012. Accessing the Unconscious. In: The Psychology Book. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. 98.
Fulcher, E., 2003. Cognitive Psychology. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Glassman, W. E. & Hadad, M., 2013. Approaches to Psychology. 6th Edition ed. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education.
Gottesman, I. I. & Shield, J., 1976. A Critical Review of Recent Adoption, Twin, and Family Studies of Schizophrenia: Behavioral Genetics Perspectives. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1 January, 2(3), p. 360–401.
Greenacre, P., 1973. The Primal Scene and the Sense of Reality. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 42(1), pp. 10-41.
Harvery, P. H. & Pagel, M. D., 1991. The Comparitive Method in Evolutionary Biology. Volume 239.
Heffner, C., n.d. Freud’s Structural and Topographical Model. [Online]
Available at: https://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego/
[Accessed 29 October 2017].
Jarrett, C. & Ginsburg, J., 2017. Super Psychology a Totally Non-scary Guide to Psychology and What it Means. London: New Burlington Books.
Rolls, G., 2005. Classic Case Studies in Psychology. 5th Edition ed. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Saigal, M., 2012. A Man With Conviction is a Hard Man to Change. In: The Psychology Book. London: Dorling Kindersley, p. 166–167.
Sammons, A., n.d. The Biological Approach: the Basics. [Online]
Available at: http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/approaches/AS_AQB_approaches_BiopsychologyBasics.pdf
[Accessed 29 October 2017].
Sappenfield, B., 1954. Personality Dynamics: an Integrative Psychology of Adjustment. American Psychology Association.
Sharpe, E., 1988. Dream Analysis: A Practical Handbook of Psychoanalysis.
Snowden, R., 2010. Freud the Key Ideas. 5th Edition ed. London: Hodder Education.
Summers, R. & Jacques, B., 2010. The Other Psychotherapies. In: Psychodynamic Therapy: A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice. London: The Guildford Press, p. 63.
Tomley, S., 2017. What Would Freud Do?: How the Greatest Psychotherapists Would Solve Your Everyday Problems. 1st Edition ed. London: Cassell.
Ward, I., 2014. Introducing Psychoanalysis: a Graphic Guide. London: Icon Books Ltd.
Wilson, S., 2012. A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. Classic World Literature Edition ed. Ware: Wordsworth Editions.
Bibliography
Angel, R. W., 1959. The Concept of Psychic Determinism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 116(5), pp. 405-408.
Cherry, K., 2017. Anna O's Life and Impact on Psychology. [Online]
Available at: https://www.verywell.com/who-was-anna-o-2795857
Cherry, K., 2017. Freud's Life and Death Instincts. [Online]
Available at: https://www.verywell.com/life-and-death-instincts-2795847
[Accessed 29 October 2017].
Collin, C. et al., 2012. The Psychology Book. UK Edition ed. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.
Darwin, C., 2013. Origin of Species. s.l.:CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Dwyer, D. & Charles, C., 2003. Revise Key Topics in A2 Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press Ltd.
Dwyer, D. & Charles, C., 2003. The Biological Approach. In: S. Edition, ed. Revise Key Topics in A2 Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press Ltd, pp. 308-309.
Elchoness, M., 1988. Sigmund Says: a Lighter Look at Freud Through His Id, Ego, and Super-Ego. s.l.:Monroe Press.
Eysenck, M. W., 1994. Perspectives on Psychology. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
Festinger, L., 1962. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L., Riecken, H. & Schachter, S., 2008. When Prophecy Fails. London: Pinter & Martin Ltd.
Freud, S., 1962. The Ego and the Id. Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud ed. London: W. W. Norton & Company.
Freud, S., 2003. Beyond the Pleasure Principle and Other Writings. London: Penguin Group.
Freud, S., 2012. Accessing the Unconscious. In: The Psychology Book. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. 98.
Fulcher, E., 2003. Cognitive Psychology. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Glassman, W. E. & Hadad, M., 2013. Approaches to Psychology. 6th Edition ed. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education.
Gottesman, I. I. & Shield, J., 1976. A Critical Review of Recent Adoption, Twin, and Family Studies of Schizophrenia: Behavioral Genetics Perspectives. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1 January, 2(3), p. 360–401.
Greenacre, P., 1973. The Primal Scene and the Sense of Reality. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 42(1), pp. 10-41.
Harvery, P. H. & Pagel, M. D., 1991. The Comparitive Method in Evolutionary Biology. Volume 239.
Heffner, C., n.d. Freud’s Structural and Topographical Model. [Online]
Available at: https://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego/
[Accessed 29 October 2017].
Jarrett, C. & Ginsburg, J., 2017. Super Psychology a Totally Non-scary Guide to Psychology and What it Means. London: New Burlington Books.
Rolls, G., 2005. Classic Case Studies in Psychology. 5th Edition ed. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Saigal, M., 2012. A Man With Conviction is a Hard Man to Change. In: The Psychology Book. London: Dorling Kindersley, p. 166–167.
Sammons, A., n.d. The Biological Approach: the Basics. [Online]
Available at: http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/approaches/AS_AQB_approaches_BiopsychologyBasics.pdf
[Accessed 29 October 2017].
Sappenfield, B., 1954. Personality Dynamics: an Integrative Psychology of Adjustment. American Psychology Association.
Sharpe, E., 1988. Dream Analysis: A Practical Handbook of Psychoanalysis.
Snowden, R., 2010. Freud the Key Ideas. 5th Edition ed. London: Hodder Education.
Summers, R. & Jacques, B., 2010. The Other Psychotherapies. In: Psychodynamic Therapy: A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice. London: The Guildford Press, p. 63.
Tomley, S., 2017. What Would Freud Do?: How the Greatest Psychotherapists Would Solve Your Everyday Problems. 1st Edition ed. London: Cassell.
Ward, I., 2014. Introducing Psychoanalysis: a Graphic Guide. London: Icon Books Ltd.
Wilson, S., 2012. A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. Classic World Literature Edition ed. Ware: Wordsworth Editions.
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missjadebrownoutlookcom (student)
