- Time is not spent on collection of data, so more time can be spent on interpretation.
- Different sources of data can be used to compare results by cross-referencing against different criteria.
- Questionnaires are flexible in what they can measure
Disadvantages are:
- Data may not quite fit your investigation.
- You have no proof how accurate results are.
- Information may be dated
- Questions open to different interpretation if not clear
- Not suitable for gathering some data
- If too long individuals will loose interest, if too short it will lack out come not reliable.
To fully research perspectives on counselling, there is a need to find out whom have encountered counselling and if not, why not. This would mean circulation of as many questionnaires to as wide an audience as possible in a very short space of time.
Qualitative research:
Undertaking qualitative research is a complex area of methodology. One of the major reasons for doing qualitative research is to become more experienced with the subject you're interested in. There is a need to use qualitative research as the basis for direct experience, but there is also the need to understand how to formulate theories and hypotheses that can be explicitly tested.
The qualitative research interview seeks to describe and the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say. (Kvale,1996 pg.123)
A qualitative research interview seeks to cover both a factual and a meaning level, though it is usually more difficult to interview on a meaning level. (Kvale,1996 pg.128)
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around the topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. (McNamara,1999. pg.89)
There are a number of research methods as listed below.
Quantitative research:
Quantitative research methods are concerned with issues of measurement and the understanding of quantitative data, not with the doing of sums. The distinction between quantity and quality is not fundamental to the understanding of the research process. However, it is easier to discuss survey research and secondary data analysis together, and in relation to general issues of measurement and evaluation. A quantitative research methodology is more appropriate when you need to forecast customer attitudes, behaviour and performance. Quantitative research is a scientific, statistics-based methodology designed to produce data that can be used by the larger population. It’s quantifiable because it is so deeply rooted in numbers and statistics; quantitative research has the ability to effectively translate data into simple quantifiable charts and graphs.
Questionnaires:
Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large or small sector of the community. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistical analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the research as well as information on specific areas identified.
It is important the questionnaire is designed carefully, and an order is followed:
- Defining the objectives of the survey
- Determining the sampling group
- Writing the questionnaire
- Administering the questionnaire
- Interpretation of the results
“..... The procedural detail is often missing from the qualitative studies, which can make it difficult or impossible for the reader to determine the plausibility of some of the data…” (McLeod, 2003. pg.94)
Sampling:
This research maybe considered as sampling.
A sample is a finite part of a statistical population
whose properties are studied to
gain information about the whole (Webster, 1985). (internet.1)
Sampling is the process and the technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative for the purpose of a formative evaluation of a given subject. The purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions and evaluations from these samples. Due to the nature of a given subject and the size of the research, some samples are better than others but all may yield samples that are inaccurate and unreliable. The alternative would be to do a census and there are six good reasons for sampling instead of doing a census. These are:
- Economy
- Timeliness
- The large size of many populations
- Inaccessibility of some of the population
- Destructiveness of the observation
- accuracy
Interviews:
Interviewing can be useful method of gathering information which is not readily available. However, interviewing is a difficult skill that takes time to master. There are also different ways of undertaking interview for research as follows:
Informal, conversational interview - No predetermined questions are asked, session remains as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with the flow”.
General interview guide approach -The guide approach ensures that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee’s
Standardized, open-ended interview -The same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that are more easily analyzed and evaluated.
Closed, fixed-response interview -Where all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This is best suited for those inexperienced in interviewing.
The following are useful steps when considering interviews within a research project.
- Have a logical sequence of questions prepared in advance.
- Be familiar with the questions
- Taping using micro-cassettes (with consent) is inconspicuous and easier than taking hand notes.
- Determine what the interviewee's compatibility or interest in the subject is beforehand as not to waste time.
- Clarify the interviewee understands why they are being interviewed (your hypothesis)
- Avoid interrupting the interviewee. Allow the interviewee to state his or her answer in full before asking another question
- Try to have a pre-set time limit of not more than one hour.
- Interview one person at a time. Sorting out who said what is difficult if there are several voices on a tape.
- For a complete picture, carry out interviews with as many people as possible who represent these differing perspectives. Without challenging the integrity of your interviewee
- Try to find interview locations that are quiet.
- If the interview is being taped, come prepared with several cassettes and replacement batteries.
- Transcribe your notes as soon as possible after the session
- Be sure to smile and make your interviewee feel at ease. Politeness and a thank-you afterward can have invaluable payoffs later on.
“…..If the interviewer can aim to establish a relationship with the interviewee characterised by high levels of respect, empathy, congruence and acceptance, and a sense of process and becoming, then the informant will be more likely to engage with the research in an authentic and constructive manner…”(McLeod. 2003.pg.76)
Interviews can bring a directness and immediacy to your data collection not found in many other methods. However, it may also be time consuming, subjective, and difficult to analyse if carried out incorrectly.
Observations:
Participant observation – This is one of the most common methods for qualitative data collection, it is also one of the most demanding. It requires that the researcher becomes a participant in the culture or context being observed. The literature on participant observation discusses how to enter the context, the role of the researcher as a participant, the collection and storage of field notes, and the analysis of field data. Participant observation often requires months or years of intensive work because the researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the culture in order to assure that the observations are of natural occurrence.
Direct Observation - Direct observation are totally different from participant observations in a number of ways. Firstly, a direct observer doesn't typically try to become a participant in the context. However, the direct observer does strive to be as unnoticeable as possible as not to bias the observations. Secondly, direct observation suggests a more detached perspective. The researcher watches rather than takes part. Direct observation can also be achieved by videotape the subject or observing from behind one-way mirrors. Thirdly, direct observation tends to be more focused than participant observation. The researcher is observing certain sampled situations or people rather than trying to become involved in the entire context. Finally, direct observations may not to take as long as participant observation.
When undertaking observations, it is important to consider how the information you collect will be analysed. Also, will the information gathered really answer your research questions? Our social lives are extremely complex and careful selection of what to look at is needed in order to give the most useful and informative data.
Literature:
Journal articles: These are useful for current and up-to-date information although that it can take up to two years to for an article to be publish. They are often used in literature reviews because they offer a concise, format for research, in addition all reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research).
Books: Books on research have a tendency of going out of date quickly, plus it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article. Text books can be limiting as they are intended for teaching, not for research, however they do offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources.
Conference proceedings: A less used resource amongst the others but can be useful in providing the latest research, or research to be published. It is also helpful in providing information on where people are currently involved in which research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers.
Government/corporate reports: Most government departments and corporations carry out research regularly. Their findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on the subject and most likely be current or have similar studies done previously.
Newspapers: As newspapers are normally intended for the general public, the information may be limited in its use for literature research. However, newspapers are generally more helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy.
Internet: This is the fastest-growing resource of information but it is almost impossible and time consuming to wade through all the information available. When using the internet, you should make sure the information is reliable, refereed, current and from a reputable source.
Case Studies:
Case studies are an intensive study of a specific individual or particular context. It establishes a firm research focus or hypothesis, and forms questions around the situation or subject to be studied and this determines purpose for the study. This leads to using a variety of data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and answers the research questions. To help in formulating the questions, a literature review is conducted. This review establishes what has been previously said or carried out before. The literature review, explanation of the purpose of the case study, and identification of a specific audience for the final report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, evaluated and reported.
Survey:
A "survey" can be anything from a short paper-and-pencil feedback to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview. Surveys are more commonly used in psychological research. The basic idea behind survey methodology is measuring variables. In most instances, surveys attempt to capture attitude or patterns of past behaviour. Surveys vary widely in sample size and design.
Surveys can be a cost-effective type of research. However, its weakness is that all surveys are basically exploratory. Other survey weaknesses include:
Reactivity: Candidates may give sought-after responses that make them look good or what they perceive the researcher is looking for.
Sampling Frame: Can be very difficult to access the proper number or type of people needed for a representative sample of a specific population.
No response Rate: Individuals who won't participate in surveys, or drop out
Measurement Error: survey may show systematic biases, or loaded questions
2. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of research methods
“… Questionnaires are a good way of collecting certain
types of information quickly and relatively cheaply as
long as you are sufficiently disciplined to abandon questions
that are superfluous to the main task.” (Bell. 1999 pg. 87)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Validity:
I believe the research was valid, based on the answers from certain questions; although it lacked clarity in the hypothesis and vagueness in the questions asked. Despite lack of clarity in some questions, others were very direct and gave clear answers. A number stated that cost would influence their decision to undertake counselling, others said that race would not influence them but gender would.
Advantage: Brought about direct and clear responses
Disadvantage: Sample group to small to reflect wider perspective
Reliability:
I believe the answers are reliable for the sample group selected. The questions were reliable in terms of being simple and not over complicated. The outcomes shown in graph gave a fair indication of perception of counselling at that given time. If I had made comparisons with other research methods such as literature interviews or surveys, it may have highlighted a different view.
Advantage: This was a good choice of research method for topic.
Disadvantage: Lack of comparison may change results on outcome.
Relevance:
Initially, some questions seemed relevant such as age, gender, race of respondents. However, it may not have been politically correct to request this information if the outcome did not show how it was to be used. Other factors may contribute to perception of counselling service that were not asked such as, economic factors / wage, class / geography, disability, status. If I were to do this again I would rethink why I requested this information and made sure they were relevant in the outcome of the results if requested, Alternatively, I could simply not ask for this information, even though I believe that it is relevant.
Advantage: Information may be vital in the outcome of findings
Disadvantage: Not relevant if not used, difficult to collate under Equality or Discrimination Acts.
Bias:
The questions were closed therefore not giving the respondent leverage to express views. Use of language such a “therapeutic” is not helpful and may constitute a loaded question. If the client states they have never undertaken counselling how would they know if it is therapeutic? This may have been dealt with differently if conducted in interview method.
Advantage: Good learning outcome and evaluation for future research.
Disadvantage: May have contributed to final results
ETHICAL AND VALUE ISSUES:
Questionnaires are easy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality is the necessary to ensure participants will respond honestly if at all. Examples of such cases would include studies that need to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal behaviour. (Internet.2)
Confidentiality:
Respondents were not required to give information that would personally identify them. Questionnaires were given out safely were there little or no suspicions to answers were raised. All replies were collated and keep safe.
Advantage: Privacy and safety of personal information a paramount concern.
Disadvantage: None identified.
Artificiality:
Within this research I did not identify anything that may be construed as artificiality. I assume the reason for this is based on the question being about counselling as a profession and not personalising or criticising respondent as a user of the service. The questions gave little reason for respondent to become defensive; it was also given and received collectively as opposed to privately.
Therefore the permission to be honest and direct was available. However, if this research had been undertaken via interview techniques or observation it may have had a different response.
Advantages: Freedom of choice,
Disadvantage: Limited and unclear questions caused ambiguity, no room for alternative answers such as not applicable or maybe / sometimes.
Choice in participation:
Questionnaires were distributed randomly, or in large groups such as class groups. A brief was given regarding the purpose of the research and no pressure placed on participation. The same can be said to respondents on an individual basis and choice given to participate or abstain.
Participants were not given enough choices for an answer; it was either yes or no. Options such as not applicable, maybe or sometimes could have been added.
Advantage: Respondents were given the choice and were under no pressure to complete questionnaire
Disadvantage: None identified.
3. Evaluate the research methods using a piece of research in counselling
Title: Brief dynamic counselling:
Making the right choice
In reading and evaluating the above article I was very impressed with the hypothesis. The background and introduction made it clear to why it was deemed to be good material for research. Unlike my research the writer had given much thought to the subject and examining its implications on counselling practice.
The methodology used in this research seems to be Case Studies and Literature review. In view of the topic my thoughts were this may not have been the best method. Richards gave two good examples from both sides of the argument. However, the major context of the research seems to be bias against Brief Therapy / Dynamic counselling with negative undertones / prompts to discourage the reader from considering this could possibly be advantageous for the client.
…..The person carrying out a research study may be highly
committed and passionate about the project and
therefore less open to seeing potential problems”
(McLeod. 2003 pg 168 -169.)
The research speaks of society and organisations emphasising lack of time and funding. Although Richards does acknowledge there is a place for this therapy in schools. This highlights that the article was published in 1999 and some articles may take up to two years to be published. Many of the quotes are also almost ten or more years old. Today as I write this society is moving even faster and almost anything can be achieved within an hour or less. Clients still arrive and ask how many sessions they are expected to attend before being given the all clear.
It was interesting to see finance and money are still a consideration in counselling, and that agencies, organisations and private counsellors are seeking ways of making counselling affordable.
Ethically, I totally agree that restraints placed on practitioners including strict numbers of sessions or any other description may harm the clients, whether it is financial, lack of resources, poor assessment, inadequate training, and an inexperienced or incompetent counsellor. All these and more can cause more damage than good to the client and profession. The only exception to this would be in of CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) where the model may specify that target to be met by a certain number of sessions, and the clients agree to this contract,
Otherwise, ethically after assessment clients should be informed that further sessions may be required outside the allocated time or through private therapy.
The Implications for counselling practice.
- Counsellors should continue to seek supervision as not to indirectly give a poor service and to ensure that best practice is maintained.
- Assessments should be thorough and discussed with a supervisor or other professional for safe measures.
- The client must be given a realistic view on undertaking therapy, and the options to continue or consider referral
- Counsellors must continue to be in therapy, supervision and undertake CPD.
- Client’s / users of service needs must remain paramount in decision to enter therapeutic alliance.
CONCLUSION
“People who have had counselling
will be less influenced by external factors
than those who haven’t”
The result of this micro research suggests this is true, as what this research has shown, with the great number having experience counselling in some form, is that those who have experienced counselling are willing to return and recommend it to someone else. One external factor that gained a high result is that of cost, as it has been identified as being influential in their decision. This perception is reinforced as stated:
“… Even though some private therapists operate a ‘sliding scale’
of fees, there are very many people for whom even a ‘low cost’ of fees, there are very many people for whom even ‘low cost’ would be impossible to afford”…(Richards.1999 pg.297)
The reason for counselling also influenced the decision to undertake counselling although there is not enough evidence that this is an external factor. With the various types of counselling available and the outcome stating many do not see counselling as a last resort, this indicates it is an internal factor to whether counselling is sort. With regards to external factors, ‘race’ of the counsellor was not deemed to be an issue; however the ‘gender’ of the counsellor scored much higher. Considering there was a higher percentage of female participants than males this in itself may not be a fair indication or reliable resource.
In summary this is what I have learnt from this experiment.
What have I learnt from conducting this investigation?
- The need for a clearer hypothesis in the beginning.
- The importance of clarity in the questions
- Give more options than yes or no as an answer
What problems / difficulties did I have?
- Some difficulties analysing data when questions were not completed
- Knowing how to choose information and select relevant questions.
What did I do wrong or, if I were to do a similar investigation, what changes would I make?
- I would reconsider the way the questionnaires were composed
- I would consider as wider selection of questions
- Giving more thought to the a wider selection of the community
- Give more thought to relevance of some questions and the lack of clarity in others
- Make more comparisons with other similar subjects
- Give more considerations to the relevance of questions
- Use all the information / data received (data on gender and age not used)
- Consider other methods such as case studies, interviews.
Data from Research Questionnaires
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bell. J (1993) Doing your Research Project (Open University)
Burne .B (1996) Managing Change (Pitman Publishing)
Heller R. (1998) Motivating People (Dorling Kindersley)
Howard K. (1993) The Management of a Student Research Project (Gower)
Kvale, Steinar.(1996) Interviews An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Sage Publications,
McLeod, J (2003) Doing Counselling Research 2nd Edition (Sage Publications)
McNamara, Carter, PhD. (1999) General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews, Minnesota,
Richards, B. M (1999) Brief Dynamic Counselling: making the right choice (Routledge: Psychodynamic Counselling – Research article)
Internet:
(1)
(2)
APPENDIX
Questionnaires
Data from Research Questionnaires - Graph
Research evaluation: Brief dynamic counselling: making the right choice
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