AS and A Level: Social Psychology

Is Psychology a Science?

Also, empirical methods are used in scientific fields to collect data, relevant to the hypothesis being tested, as is the case in many psychological experiments, such as the use of brain scanning in Dement and Kleitman's 1957 study. Science is meant to be objective and unbiased. It should be free of values and discover the truths about what it is studying. Positivism is the view that science is objective and a study of what is real. For example, schizophrenia, when diagnosed as being caused due to excess dopamine, is being studied in a scientific manner.

• Word count: 1278

• Save

Critically evaluate whether Milgrams research on obedience was ethical

Also known as moral philosophy, ethics seek to address questions about morality and explore concepts such as good or bad, right and wrong, justice and virtue; however, they had not yet formally been introduced into psychology research at that time. It was not until 1990 that the British Psychological Society (BPS) first published a set of ethical guidelines but having said that, psychologist were aware they still had a responsibility to protect their participants from harm and not to cause them unnecessary distress.

• Word count: 1629

• Save

I think that Social Psychology can only explain some of why football hooliganism happens

There are many explanations of why football hooliganism occurs, but one we have looked at is Social Identity Theory. This theory states that just the simple act of grouping will lead to conflict, between in-groups and out-groups. When a person enters a football stadium and chooses to sit with a certain group of people (home fans or away fans), they are categorising themselves into that in-group, and the fans that are in the opposite side of the stadium are the opposition team, and then they become the out group.

• Word count: 1148

• Save

Describe and Evaluate two or more explanations of the pro-social effects of the media (24)

Assuming that these social norms have been internalised by the viewer, the imitation of these acts, therefore, is likely to be associated with the expectation of social reinforcement, and so the child is motivated to repeat these actions in their own life. Furthermore, Bandura would also suggest that the pro-social effects of the media derives from reciprocal determinism whereby people who watch programmes about helping people will make friends with people who watch similar TV programmes. A second explanation of how the media influences pro-social behaviour comes from research into developmental trends.

• Word count: 903

• Save

Neural mechanisms of eating behaviour

It has been suggested that the hormone Ghrelin is a key component in the feeding process and researchers say that increased ghrelin production may result in feelings of hunger. Cummings et al investigated the changes in blood ghrelin levels overtime between meals in an attempt to determine the effects of ghrelin on hunger. The researchers measured the blood ghrelin levels, of 6 participants who were kept away from daylight, every 5mins until the participants asked for their next meal. Participants were also asked to record their degree of hunger every 30mins.

• Word count: 963

• Save

Outline and evaluate biological explanations of aggression

Theilgaard also did research comparing XYY to XY and XYY males. She used thematic apperception tests (TATs). She compared prison inmates to the general population. She found that although XYY males were more likely to give aggressive interpretations of the images this did not mean that they would perform aggressive acts in real-life situations. So this would go against what Court-Brown found. Court-Brown used a lab experiment to conduct his study. A lab experiment is prone to confounding variables because there may be other factors that may influence the outcome of the result.

• Word count: 1383

• Save

Describe and evaluate one or more theories relating to the formation and/or maintenance of relationships

they make us feel good). This is supported by Griffir and Guay (1969) who found that participants rated and experimenter more highly if he/she had given them a positive evaluation. The 'reinforcement' aspect can also be associated with classical conditioning; we like some individuals because they are associated with pleasant events. This is supported by Grifit and Guay (1969) who found that onlookers were also rated more highly when the experimenter had rates participants positively. The affect of the classical and/or operant conditioning leads to feelings of either positive (if they make us feel happy)

• Save

A study into social representations of sexuality

These representations exist in our minds and are circulated via communication - e.g. the media, and are truly social as they are generated in a social group (unlike schema theory, which focuses on the brain). They provide a means of communication within a group and distinguish one social group from another. In his social representation theory, as discussed in Cardwell, Clark & Meldrum (2004), Moscovici affirms that the processes of anchoring and objectification help us to transform unfamiliar concepts into something more familiar.

• Word count: 2575

• Save

The effect of the Level of Processing on the amount of information recalled

They believed that it is the level of processing that determines whether or not something is stored in LTM. If something is processed deeply then it becomes stored in LTM; if it is processed superficially then it does not. Depth refers to the degree of semantic involvement. Craik and Tulving (1975) carried out a piece of research based on three levels of processing: structural, phonetic and semantic. They presented participants with words using a tachistoscope and asked them one of four types of question about each word.

• Word count: 3871

• Save

Compare and Contrast two theories of Bystander Behaviour

The model argues that a person's response could be inhibited at any time during the five stages, examples of these are; audience inhibition, social influence and norms, and diffusion of responsibility. (Latan� & Nida 1981). A series of experiments were conducted in support of this theory. Latan� and Darley (1970) carried out an experiment whereby male participants were invited to discuss some of the problems involved in life at a large university. While they were completing a questionnaire the room was filled with smoke through a wall vent.

• Word count: 1722

• Save

Discuss evolutionary explanations of intelligence

They found that the monkeys were quick at finding a suitable stick but tried out many unsuitable ones first. This suggests no understanding of causal relationships and that many animals develop the skill through trial and error rather than insight. Only the great apes show the sophisticated understanding of cause and effect so this supports the link between tool use and intelligence. The association between the growth of hunting and intelligence shows that more intelligent individuals are more intelligent than less intelligent. However many species with very successful hunting techniques are not very intelligent and therefore it is unlikely that the benefits of hunting would account for human levels of intelligence.

• Word count: 1373

• Save

Describe what psychologists have learned about environmental disaster and/or technological catastrophe.

Psychologists have also studied people's awareness and perception of the risks they face from natural disaster. One field study by Simms & Baumann (1972) suggests that personality determines perception of risk. They found that residents of Alabama were more external in their locus of control, believing in the forces of fate rather than personal responsibility. These residents were less likely to take precautions such as listening to radio reports of weather and preparing for storms, than residents in Illinois, who had internal locus of control. Death rates from Tornadoes were higher in the southern areas (Alabaman)

• Word count: 1988

• Save

Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk explores the theme of masculinity through clever characterisation, exploration of conformity and anarchy and through unusual language.

I think that this illustrates the concept that Joe is a chronic insomniac and changes personality in his sleep. There are many similarities between Joe and Tyler up until we discover they are the same person. They both love Marla but only Tyler sleeps with her. This provides comic moments when we realise that all through the book Marla has been talking to Joe as her lover but Joe has been talking to her as his friend's girlfriend. Both Joe and Tyler end up looking like each other, "Tyler and I were looking more and more like Identical Twins.

• Word count: 1991

• Save

Describe and evaluate psychological research into conformity and obedience in humans, and consider ways in which this research can be applied to real life.

During post-experimental interviews with his participants, Asch found that conformity occurred at three levels. Few conforming participants experienced distortion of perception, most conforming participants experienced a distortion of judgement, and some conforming participants yielded to the majority because they could not bear to be in a minority of the group. Asch summed up that people may go along with the views of others for different reasons. Asch's study has become a classic and is to be found in all text books on psychology.

• Word count: 1597

• Save

Psychology Coursework - Conformity

After a few moments of concentrating on a spot the spot of light appears to move. Participants were brought individually into the room and were asked to make an estimate on how far the light moved, for several trials. Following their estimations the participants were allowed to hear each other's estimates, a group influence was introduced. The results showed that the subsequent estimates tended to become more alike. Therefore the participants of Sherif showed conformity. Asch (1952) Asch made many variations to this experiment but the basic procedure was for participants to study a visual perception that involved judging the lengths of lines to a comparison.

• Word count: 3081

• Save

Psychology formation of relationships

However, the real purpose of the questionnaire was used later in the research to assess the similarity. By not informing the participants of the real purpose of the questionnaire this raises ethical issues such as deception and fully informed concent as the participants can not give fully formed consent to something if they are being decived and do not no the full extent of what is going on or what there questionnaire is being used for. The participants were paired randomly; however, it was made sure that the men were all taller than their female.

• Word count: 794

• Save

Friendship and development

Discuss what psychologists have discovered about the development of friendship. Refer to evidence in your answer. (12 mark) Many factors are indeed involved in the formation and development of friendships on important factors is Psychologists have observed that there is a difference in the type of friendships that are formed within different age groups Selman attempted to categorise these groups and came up with the following: - 0-2 Months Pre-attachment relationships with little or no discrimination between objects 2-6 Months infants now prefer human company and they can distinguish between Familiar and Unfamiliar people. 6 Months specific attachment preferences are shown and from 2 years onwards goal related friendships are made.

• Word count: 794

• Save

Outline and evaluate research into obedience

The participant watched the confederate being strapped into the electric chair. The learner began to answer correctly but then made mistakes. Shocks started at 15 volts and rose in 15 volt increments up to 450 volts. The researchers encouraged the teachers to give the shock when they hesitated. However no shocks were actually administered. The experiment continued until either the teacher refused to move on or 450 volts were reached and given 4 times. All participants went to at least 300 volts on the shock generator; this is 20 separate shocks administered.

• Word count: 927

• Save

Explanations of conformity. Conformity is defined by David Myers (1999) as a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

Over time we conform more and more to the ways other people do things and it becomes a social obligation to fit in. Those who decide not to belong to the group are often called strange and deviant. The Informational social influence is where we assume the actions of others reflect the correct behaviour for a situation. This effect is prominent in ambiguous social situations where we are unable to determine the appropriate model of behaviour and are driven by the assumption that others possess more knowledge of the situation.

• Word count: 937

• Save

Outline one theory of the maintenance of relationships. The social exchange theory (Thibaut and Kelley) revolves around profit and loss within relationships.

So, they introduced two 'reference' levels; the comparison level and the comparison level for alternatives. The comparison level is concerned with past and present; that is, the comparison between the rewards and costs of the reference relationship and what we have been used to in the past or believe is appropriate. We have motivation to stay in the relationship if it compares favourably to the reference relationship. A person may also use the experiences of others (e.g. discussing relationships with friends) to evaluate their own relationship. The comparison level for alternatives, on the other hand, is concerned with the benefits of possible alternative relationships.

• Word count: 1011

• Save

Dicuss one psychological theory of aggression

He also suggests that being in a large anonymous group leads to more anti social behaviours. Diener (1980) expanded on Le Bon's original theory stating that "poor monitoring of one's own behaviour, reduced concern to have social approval of one's behaviour, reduced constraints against behaving impulsively and reduced capacity to think rationally". There is a lot of research and real life applications supporting this theory. Zimbardo, who did a lot of research investigating this theory, did an experiment in 1969 called the shock experiment. He took two groups of four undergraduate females to deliver electric shocks to other students to help them in their learning.

• Word count: 667

• Save

Factors underlying anomalous experience

Blackmoore argued that individuals who made poor probability misjudgements were more likely to suggest that their experiences were psychic. However, Musch urge caution since this could be explained by poor cognitive ability and not a component in paranormal belief. Morris suggested that individuals who believe that they have experienced a psychic event think this because there appears to be a strange connection between their thoughts and events in the real world. This ability should not be viewed negatively, it is likely that similar characteristics underlie creativity.

• Word count: 861

• Save

Sexual Selection

next generation * Females are 'in demand', so sexual selection will mostly operate on the males who have to work to get access to the females * The features will either help the males to compete with other males and 'fight them off' for access to the females, or they will make them sexually desirable to the females, so they get access to more mates INTRAsexual selection is when features have been selected by how well they helped to fight of the other males (body size, muscularity, fighting ability, aggression etc.)

• Word count: 1138

• Save

Social Cognition

There are four different types of schemata: self, person, role and script. An example of a self schemata is what you expect you would do in a social situation. An example of a person schemata is what you expect your best friend to do during a day out An example of a role schemata would be what you expect a teacher to do during a lesson. An example of a script schemata would be what you expect to happen if you go to a restaurant. Schemas and scripts help us socially as they simplify social situations and new information.

• Word count: 1174

• Save