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Cardinal Traits; A cardinal trait would be one trait that dominates personality across time and situations. If you had a cardinal trait, it would be the most important component of your personality e.g. ambition, power seeking. Relatively few people develop a cardinal trait. If they do, it tends to be late in life.
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Central Traits Five to ten traits that is stable across time and situations. Everyone has central traits and they are the building blocks of personality. Honesty, friendliness, happiness, introverted, extroverted, smart etc.
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Secondary Traits Characteristics that is only evident in certain situations. These are of less importance to personality theorists. Preferences, attitudes, situational traits are all secondary. For example, “he gets angry when you try to tickle him”.
(Information from http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/allport.html)
Raymond Cattell’s Personality model is primarily responsible for the development of a consistent and meaningful trait theory. Cattell acknowledged previous theories and realised 16 primary traits. In his model, he proposed that there are 16 traits that are universal in the realm of personality. He collected many relevant terms in his search of universal personality traits, and through advanced statistical methods of his time, he narrowed them down to 16 (1965). A personality test, the 16 PF (Personality Factors), which was based on this work, and are still in use today.
(information from http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/eysenck.html)
Eysenck’s (1916) work focuses on temperament which is an aspect of our personalities that is genetically based, inborn, there from birth or even before. That does not mean that a temperament theory says we don't also have aspects of our personality that are learned! They just have a focus on "nature," and leave "nurture" to other theorists!
Eysenck found two personality dimensions which can be viewed as a continuum.
Neuroticism and extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism is the name Eysenck gave to a dimension that ranges from normal, fairly calm and collected people to one’s that tend to be quite “nervous.” His research showed that these nervous people tended to suffer more frequently from a variety of “nervous disorders” we call neuroses, hence the name of the dimension. But understand that he was not saying that people who score high on the neuroticism scale are necessarily neurotics -- only that they are more susceptible to neurotic problems. (http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/eysenck.html)
- Extraversion-introversion
His second dimension is extraversion-introversion. Shy, quiet people “versus” out-going, loud people. This dimension, too, is found in everyone, but the physiological explanation is a bit more complex
(http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/eysenck.html)
Social cognitive approaches can claim to have endured as much scientific back-up. Strict Behavioural View; your personality consists of the behaviours you show. It is learned through reinforcement or punishment of particular response tendencies in different situations.
Bandura (1977) proposed from his research that that we learn by observing others and modelling their behaviour, which is called observational learning. The people that we are most likely to model are known as significant others (Parents, role models). Who are seen to be rewarded for their behaviour. A significant other can have a dramatic effect on every aspect of a players game whether young, old, beginner or elite performer. This effect can be either negative or positive depending on the actions of the admired performer. If the significant other gives a good performance with a high work rate, it is more likely that a child/beginner will imitate this and be determined for him/herself to put in more effort in his/her performance. This will be increased even more so if the performer being watched is seen to be rewarded for his performance. In contrast to this, players being modelled by others can have highly disruptive effects on the receiver's performance. Players that show undesirable aspects of the game such as violence, bad sportsmanship or a lazy attitude e.g. fighting can create an image for the recipient that that kind of behaviour is acceptable.
(Information from http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/bandura.html)
http://academic.evergreen.edu/h/hiljus01/bobo.htm
Task 2
Baron (1977) defines aggression as the following:
"Any behaviour directed at the goal of harming or injuring another being who is motivated to avoid such treatment."
There are certain types of aggression, some within the rules or laws of the game and others that do not. Hostile aggression is said to be aggressive acts motivated by anger that have the intent and goal of harming another but also is not with in the rules/laws. An example of this in rugby would be a dangerous tackle above the shoulders/ round the head or neck of the opposition, a spear tackle, were a player is lifted off the ground and dropped head first into the ground also throwing a punch is outside the rules and can result in a sending off or sin bin.
Another form of aggression is instrumental aggression, which are aggressive acts that are intended to harm another person with the goal of achieving a goal without suffering. An example of this would be going into a tackle and hitting your opponent with your shoulder first then wrapping your arms around them. Assertiveness is not entirely a form of aggression but a use of legitimate strategy and force to achieve a set goal. An example of this would be an assertive tackle in the beginning of the game in order to intimidate the opponents. TIL Visit
Through the years many psychologist have introduced theories to how and why aggression is caused. Freud and Lorenz suggested that people, like animals have inherent predisposition to act aggressively.
Instinct theory
Instinct or catharsis, differs is based on the infamous works of Sigmund Freud, who argued that aggression is “an inborn drive similar to sex or hunger” Thus, according to Freud, aggression comprises an important part of what makes us human.
The instinct theory maintains that aggression, as a natural instinct, should be expressed. Its proponents, therefore, support the release of such inborn aggression in a controlled environment, i.e. a football game. Konrad Lorenz, who later extended Freud’s original hypothesis, even suggested that discharging instinctual aggression in positive societal contexts (such as sporting events) satisfies a basic human need.
The diagram above shows the beginning of frustration and how this leads to aggressive acts. The frustration-aggression (FA) hypothesis, developed by five theorists in 1939, argues that aggression is simply a generic response to frustration (hence the theory’s name). The theory’s principle focuses on the cyclic nature of frustration and aggression. In this respect, frustration leads to some expression of aggression, while acts of aggression are the direct result of frustration.
This however was revised by Berkowitz as shown
Interpretation of the FA model asserts that once an individual acts out his/her aggression, he/she is more likely to act out aggression in the future. So, if an athlete’s aggressive behaviour is ignored (or, more dangerously, rewarded), that athlete is more inclined to repeat the conduct in a like situation.
(Information from http://www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/berko_reg_print.html)
Social learning
Aggressive acts can also be imitated this is better known as the social learning theory (Bandura). Bandura suggested the aggressive behaviors are learned through reinforcement by others or operant conditioning (A process of behavior modification in which the likelihood of a specific behavior is increased or decreased through positive or negative reinforcement each time the behavior is exhibited, so that the subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the behavior).
(Info from http://www.garysturt.free-online.co.uk/bandura.htm)
For example, if a person was to observe an aggressive act in a rugby match by one of their roll models then the likelihood of this act being recreated in a different situation is high.
Aggressive acts has its effects, McCarthy and Kelly (1978), (http://www1.appstate.edu/~beckhp/aggsociallearning.htm) research suggests that aggression improves performance. For example a rugby player has to be aggressive to a certain extent in order to avoid harm to themselves, if a performer was to play half heartedly the likelihood of them become injured is high, due to concentration not fully being on, for example making a tackle. However, it has been suggested that aggression could hinder performance in that attention is focuses away from the task at hand, or arousal has increased past the optimal level
The diagram below shows a diagram of the inverted U theory
The diagram above shows the inverted U theory, which suggests that there, is an optimal performance at a certain time during an exercise and if this optimal arousal level is breeched, due to frustration, or anger towards another player or to highly motivated then performance of the activity or game will decrease. This can then lead to frustration due to the fact the goal has not been reached. It is therefore the job of the coach within the rugby team to find out how to reach and what reaches the optimal arousal of each playing in order to increase team’s performance.
TASK 3
When we come to link personality and behaviour with sports performance, we can see a link between a persons personality/behaviour and there performance. For instance Eysenck said “extroverts need increased levels of stimulation to maintain optimum levels of attention and brain functioning. They could become bored very easily and would tend to seek out and be happier in new and challenging situations.” (Wesson et al 2000) extroverts according Eysenck do not have much arousal and need to find sports which stimulate them. Extroverts achieve optimum performance at high levels of arousal preferably in team orientated activities or involving large movements. For example extroverts would strive in a football game were they are playing with their team mates and it involves gross movements, the game is exciting and competitive. This would suit their personalities. Activities such as long-distance running or triathlon which has a large continuous element could be demotivating and boring.
On the other hand Introverts “have high levels of excitation naturally occurring within them (over aroused). So therefore they have no need to seek excitement in order to function at an optimum level.” (Wesson et al 2000) Introverts according to Eysenck achieve high levels of performance at lower levels of arousal, sports such as shooting or long-distance running.
How we deal with a sports situation can be linked to trait theories and our personalities, for example if you were assessed as being angry and easily loose your temper. Then this is how you would respond in a given situation. Such as, if your losing you will start being aggressive towards other people and might lash-out.
According to the Instinct theory, it is a natural occurrence for humans to act in an aggressive way. Sport can be seen a back to the instinctive ways of humans were it could not be allowed to happen in society because of laws. The nature of sport has a competitive and some time physical element. Human’s natural instinct can come out to win and not to be defeated in sports.
Social- learning theory does not agree with the above, it suggests that we act aggressively because we have seen a significant other do so, and we see those actions as acceptable and good.
Bibliography
Baren (1977)- www.ex.ac.uk/Psychology/ docs/courses/1124/aggression2.ppt
Jung- (1934)-
Allport - Information from
Eysenck -http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/eysenck.html
Bandura -
http://academic.evergreen.edu/h/hiljus01/bobo.htm
Wesson, K. Wiggins, N. Thompson, G. Hartigan, T. 2000 Sport and PE a complete guide a advanced level study- second edition. UK Hodder and Stoulton
