out to prove this, one of the most well known experiments being Solomon Asch's studies into
group pressure. His studies found that individuals, when faced with a consenting majority, would
often agree with the rest of the group's answers to the test, even when they were obviously
wrong to start with. When tested individually, without the group, the subjects would always
answer correctly (Baron, p. 79, 1999). Therefore it is apparent that individuals are often
influenced by people around them. Their reasons for succumbing to "group pressure" are less
obvious. It could have been that they were just "following the crowd" in order not be disliked or
victimised by the other members, or it could be that they became convinced by the unanimous
opinion. One everyday example of conforming behaviour by the layperson might be driving on
the right (left) side of the road, which would be the correct thing to do and would satisfy the
expectations of others (except when driving on the continent). Without this incentive to conform,
it could lead to a number of accidents. This is why social psychology plays a very important part
in everyday life.
Research by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s on obedience showed how social influence
could effect moral acts as well as visual judgements like Asch's studies. By demanding
individuals to deliver electric shocks to patients supposedly to lethal levels, Milgram showed that
a large population of people would often obey to figures of authority even when they knew what
they were doing was morally wrong. When asking the layperson if they would administer lethal
electric shocks to patients, their typical reply would be no. However, according to Milgram's
experiments, and other replications of his experiments around the world, more than half the
subjects would go so far as to inflict the fatal shock (Aronson, p.41, 1988).
Attitudes and Behaviour
A common assumption is that attitudes determine behaviour. However, there are many
that disagree with this statement and claim that they are independent of each other in particular
cases. A sociologist named LaPiere, was one of those who said that there was a considerable
difference between the two. In his studies in America during the 1930s, he found that
restaurants and hotels which said they would not serve Chinese as guests, actually did in
practice (LaPiere, 1934). The study of human behaviour and its relationship with attitudes by
methods of self-report (interviews, opinion polls, and attitude surveys) has also been criticised.
It has been argued that recording words and opinions cannot necessarily be taken as an
adequate substitute for observing actions. It is often hard to identify situations where there is an
evident connection between what people say and what they do, and to identify the
characteristics of situations where the relationship between the two might be doubtful or non-
existent. The layperson may have firm opinions on politics or other matters, but whether they
will act on those beliefs is another matter.
Attitudes towards sex is a subject which the layperson may well be aware of, yet the
thought of the psychology involved is disregarded frequently. Society's attitudes about sexuality
strongly influence our sexual behaviour and even research on behaviour, because it is
considered by many as a taboo, especially for young children. Nevertheless, sex can be a rather
complicated psychological area to study, because of the ability of humans to respond in various
different ways to erotic stimuli. Rachman was able to teach subjects to be sexually exited by
shoes (Rachman, p. 293-6, 1966) with results similar to Pavlov's experiments on animal
behaviour, which established associated stimuli with the desire for food, or in Rachman's case,
sex. As far-fetched as it may sound, common observation and case histories clearly indicate that
human beings have been conditioned to respond sexually to all sorts of stimulus in addition to a
member of the opposite sex. Humans have become susceptible to being sexually aroused by
clothes, spanking, champagne, parts of the body which have nothing to do with sex, and many
other things which probably shouldn't be mentioned here.
Mass psychology
Mass psychology concerns three main areas: the social nature of individuals, their
interactions with others, and their representations of the social world. In many ways it is very
simular to social psychology, although it focuses more on the individual and the group. It deals
with how people keep (or fail to keep) the power to make their own choices against pressure
from other groups in society, and from centres of authority.
The social psychologist Erich Fromm thought that the feeling of separation between
mother and child gave the offspring considerable anxiety, which he claimed, could be used in a
creative way (productive work and relationships), or in a destructive way (violence and anti-
social behaviour). By joining mass movements, Fromm said that the individual's problems were
ignored, and that conforming to the group would reduce the initial uneasiness. He associated this
trend to nationalism. It could also be attributed to hooliganism or religious sects in a modern
context. When people join these groups, some researchers have found that they can change
their values and beliefs according to the group tendency (Fromm, 1957).
Mass communication in the form of television, radio, and cinema can also spread
cultural norms and trends, and can exert a heavy influence on public opinion and perceptions.
People can use these forms as a source of escapism, or a means of identifying with fictional lives
(Howitt, p.23, 1982).
The philosopher Roland Barthes argued that the imagery or slogans used in advertising
can be used to sell the product to the general public. He claimed that in these cases, the instinct
within people wins over the reasoning mind. Political propaganda, (i.e. Lord Kitchener's
recruiting posters during world war II), without delving into the complex issues which surround
war, works in the same way. (Barthes, 1967)
Extremist groups such as religious cults, national movements or simply adolescent gangs
intent on crating mayhem are run with very simple sets of norms (Reich, 1997). Examples might
include believing one's country is "best", choosing to wear particular clothing because it is "cool",
or stealing because they feel society is unbalanced. These groups can be considered quite
dangerous as they project their own problems on the rest of the world. Remaining separate from
wider, open and more inclusive social norms could escalate resulting in disastrous consequences
(i.e. the genocide of World War II, and the September 11th attacks this year)
Because extreme examples of mass behaviour result in violence, such as the dominance
of "mob rule", maintenance of peace and social cohesion depends on an understanding of mass
psychology.
To sum up, it would be reasonable to say that mass psychology and social psychology
form a part of everyday life. The layperson is bound to come across it in some form be it
through advertising, attitudes and behaviour, and interaction with other people. However, when
describing psychology, the layperson will have a tendency to omit these facts, resulting in an
incomplete and somewhat inaccurate view of the subject.
References
Aronson, (1988) The Social Animal
Ash, Woodward, (1989) Psychology in 20th Century Thought and Society
Baron, Byrne, Griffit, (1999) Social Psychology
Barthes, (1967) The Discourse of history
Carson, Buskist, Martin, (2000) Psychology; the Science of Behaviour
Fromm, (1957) The humanistic science of man
Hogg, Vaughan, (1998) Social Psychology
Howitt, (1982) Mass media and Social Problems
Lapiere, (1934) Social Forces
Rachman, (1966) Psychological Record
Reich, (1997) The Mass Psychology of Fascism