What is shopping addiction and how can it be treated?

Over the last few decades, the attitude with which individuals make consumer choices has changed. Factors such as higher disposable income and easily available credit facilities mean that more than ever shopping is not solely for material necessity. As Benson put it “to regard the shopping process as nothing more than material consumption is like thinking of food as solely nutritional or sex as wholly for procreation” (Benson 2000, p68). Through an examination of buying behaviour and buying motivations it has been shown how choices about consumer products are influenced by factors other than the functional aspects of the goods. Factors include symbolic meanings, which allow individuals to express and construct a sense of self and ones identity. Dittmar and Beattie define impulse buying (or oniomania) as the purchasing of consumer goods without careful deliberation, perhaps with insufficient information or without prior intent. Puchases which with hidsight and rational reflection might not have been made. They suggest that buying goods to bolster ones self image is something that contributes to nearly all buying behaviour (Dittmar and Beattie 1996) Everybody, in fact, would be able to recall an occasion when they acted according to these definitions, just as everyone has at some time drunk too much or eaten too much only to regret it on reflection. However, it is when this becomes detrimental to finance, family and self that it can be called compulsive buying behaviour. Compulsive buying behaviour or “shopping addiction” is estimated to affect two to five percent of adults in developed Western countries (Dittmar, Beattie and Friese, 1996) This essay will firstly look at the two theories of oniomania; Social Psychological theory and the Psychiatric or Clinical perspective. Then some of the options for treatment will be discussed.

Many researchers have talked of the role of self esteem in shopping addiction. Cushman (1990) talked of the “empty self”. He looked into the current configuration of the self and some of the technologies that claim to heal it. He looks at consumption behaviour from a historical perspective and focuses on the shift from the Victorian, sexually restricted self to the post World War two empty self. In his view, the empty self is made cohesive by “becoming ´filled up´with food, consumer products and celebrities” (Cushman 1990, p602) This idea has been examined with more focus on shopping addiction in one of the papers examining the social psycological theory of excessive buying behaviour by Dittmar Beattie and Friese (1996). Here it is sugested that consumers buy goods as a strategy to compensate for percieved discrepancies in the way in which they percieve themselves and the way in which they wish to be seen. Or their “actual self” and thier “ideal self”. In addition to that they looked at how high the compulsive shoppers scored on a materialism scale compared to normal shoppers, finding compulsive shoppers scoring significantly higher. They also demonstrated that compulsive shoppers differ systematically from non addicted shoppers in the frequency with which they buy different types of consumer goods on impulse and their reasons for doing so. It seems form the results that addicted shoppers buy more appearence related goods such as clothes and jewellary . They are motivated by image conserns rather than functional ones. Compulsive shoppers have greater self discrepancies and stronger consumption orientated values than non-compulsive ones (Dittmar, Beattie and Friese, 1996)

A study by Desarbo and Edwards (1996) also looked at shopping addiction from the social psychological perspective. Here however, the primary goal was examine the heterogeneous nature of compulsive buying behaviour and therefore determine whether individuals exhibiting compulsive buying can be distinguised not only by the intensity of the behaviour but also by the motivations behind their consumption. They found high levels of compulsive buying are significantly associated with higher levels of impulsivness, excitment seeking, dependence, denial and materialism. They also pointed out that there was some overlap between the compulsive buyers and the general population implying that there is no clear seperation between the two groups. They found two clusters; Internal compulsive buyers whose shopping behaviour appears to be motivated by impulsivness, low self esteem, dependence and anxiety – suggesting a more psychological reason for their behaviour (more in line with the clinical perspective). Also they identified an External group of compulsive buyers who were motivated by materialism, coping, isolation, denial and impulsivness – more driven by immediate environment than by deep seated psychologial problems (more in line with social psychological model).

These findings all seem to suggest that compulsive shopping is a way of raising self-esteem and enhancing positive affect.It is because of these similarities that compulsive shopping has been studied by some researchers in relation to other impulse control disorders and related addiction disorders. This has given rise to the Psychiatric perspective (or Clinical model) of shopping addiction. O´Guinn and Faber explore the issue of compulsive buying framed within the larger category of compulsive consumption. Their results indicate that people whon buy compulsively are “more likely to demonstrate compulsivity as a personality trait, have lower self- esteem and be more ...

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It could be suggested therefore that compulsive buying represents one form of a broader category of compulsive behaviours. Compulsive buying does in fact share phenomenological features with impulse-control, obsessive-compulsive and substance abuse disorders. It is included in the DSM-IV category under “impulse control disorders not otherwise specified.” Consistent with this idea of a broader cache of consumtion disorders, are indications that people who have one disorder are much more at risk for developing other disorders. This is called co-morbidity in psychiatric terms. This can occur if “both disorders represent alternative responses to a similar set of underlying problems or if one disorder leads to another” (Krahn 1991, as cited by Faber et. al. 1995, p297) There are some studies which support this idea, by comparing the co-morbidity of certain disorders and compulsive buying. The first of those described here is a comparison of the buying behaviour of depressed patients presenting with or without compulsive buying behaviour. It assesed the prevalance of compulsive buying and compared the “buying style” among majorly depressed patients with (CB+) and without (CB-)compulsive buying. They found that compulsive buying in depressed patients could be understood in terms of “compensatory buying” that temporarily relieves depressive symptoms and is preceded by hesitation and anxious rumination. The compensatory dimension of the purchase was corroborated by the fact that the CB+ group most often brought gifts to themselves and others (Le Joyeux et al. 1999) Seen in this way shopping can be compared to a food binge in Bulimia or the compulsive acts and rituals in obsessive compulsive disorder to relieve anxiety and perhaps act as a “fix” to combat negative affect. (Although some compulsive shoppers do report a feeling of “high” or a buzz that is similar to that of drug users suggesting an addiction framework is needed rather than a compulsión one). Likewise Compulsive buying can be compared to gambling and eating disorders because they are not technically physically addictive. Over the last few decades there has been an increase in interest in consumption disorders. Usually this focuses on shoplifting, alcoholism, drug addiction and compulsive sexuality. (O´Guinn and Faber 1989) A study by Faber et al (1995) examined two forms of compulsive consumption: co-morbidity of compuklsive buying and binge eating. It was foung that women diagnosed as having binge eating disorder had significantly greater compulsive buying tendancies than non-binge eaters of a similar weight. They also established that compulsive buyers were more likely to have engaged in binge eating, had more symptoms characteristic of both binge eating disorder and Bulimia Nervosa, and were more likely to be clinically diagnosed as having an eating disorder than a matched control group.

In essence then all the research discussed above indicates that if one is prone to negative affect, low self-esteem or the like, then the individuals internal belief systems, cultural beliefs, socioeconomic status or background would be a determinant of what a persons “poison” would be, whether it be food, possesions or sex. Dittmar et. al. (1996) demonstrated this web in the peper discussed before looking at self-discrepancies and shopping. The low self-esteem element seems to be an important contributing factor in addictive disorders but high levels of materialism seem to create compulsive shoppers because possesions seem to mean much more to them than ordinary shoppers. In other words, if someone was a very utilitarian shopper (Babin et. al. 1994) perhaps a male who took pleasure in visiting casinos or bars (or used them to “unwind”), suffered from large self-discrepancies and negative affect but low materialism – he might become a gambling addict or an alcoholic. Furby described the theory of meaning and function of possesions throughout the life cycle. He found that people viewed possesions as an “extention of the individual” that helps define individuality. This supports the idea that with compulsive shoppers possesions are their “poison” and enhance self-esteem. Furby goes on to suggest that “Establishing a sense of self identity is certanly a social phenomenon – it must be done vis-a-vis other individuals” (Furby, 1978. p 37) Since possesions are viewed as an extensión of one person and since society values posessions and consumption (Otto 1975. As cited by Furby 1978)

Another point which must be touched on is the issue of gender differences in shopping addiction. A study by Dittmar explored to types of personal possesions men and women consider important and the meanings they attach to them. The results showed that men seem to see possesions as important mainly because of their instrumental, pragmatic and self referant features. Women seem to also consider possesions as symbolic of interpersonal intergration and emotional attatchment. These findings are relevant because shopping addiction is mostly a womans disorder. Shopping in general is still really a womans pursuit and a culturally accepted norm. As mentioned earlier perhaps men are more likely to alter their negaitve affect with alcohol or gambling. Men are more likely to see the activity of shopping as a functional necessesity. (Campbell 1998, as cited by Campbell 2000)

The second part of this essay will look at the various types of treatments that may be used to help individuals with compulsive buying habits. Cushman, when discussing the “Empty Self” suggests that the two professions that are most responsible for healing the empty self are advertising and psychotherapy. He suggests that there is a ‘bind’ in that “they must treat the psychological symptom without being able to address the historical principles.” (Cushman 1990. p610) – as mentioned earlier with the Victorian sexually restricted self and the post W W two empty self). Both advertising and psychotherapy circumvent this problem by employing what he calls the ‘lifestyle’ solution. This is a strategy that attempts to heal by covertly filling up the empty self with “the accoutrements, values and mannerisms of idealised figures” (Cushman, 1990. p610) i.e. the therapist or leader. However he mentions the down side of this: namely potential for abuse by exploytative therapists, cult leaders and politicians. (Cushman 1990)

Another (cognitive behaviour) therapy focuses on changing locus of control beliefs. Busseri et al showed how the measure of consumer locus of control beliefs was significantly related to consumer behaviour. Whereas measures of economic and generalised locus of control proved to be unrelated to shopping effort planning and product knowledge. The more internal their consumer control beliefs the more likely they were to plan and be purposeful in the act of shopping. (Busseri et al 1998) In light of these findings perhaps one angle treatment could take would be to offer cognitive behaviour therapy concentrating on changing locus of control beliefs in individuals.

As has been shown earlier in the essay, the idea of addiction has broadened to include other conditions such as shopping alongside the more established addictions such as alcoholism. Some believe that it can be treated as other addictions would. Goldman, a practitioner of psychoalalyitic psychotherapy found in her practice that many patients would come to see her for an addiction such as eating or gambling and subsequently revealed a shopping addiction as well. She works from the point of view that “compulsive and addictive disorders are both compensatory and defensive in nature “ and are used to “ compensate for a deep sense of emptiness and inadequecy, and to defend against negative affect” (Goldman 2000. p249). This approach to treatment advocated not simply treating the shopping act itself but the compulsivity element of their personality because as we have seen earlier there is a risk of co- morbidity of disorders. One of the key points in her therapy includes: Helping the patient to examine those aspects of their history that make them susceptable to the buying addiction. This requires examination of emotional states that occur before, during and after excessive buying. Alsao the patient is encouraged to explore the use of fantasy in buying behaviour. This can be difficult as compulsive buyers are often “reluctant to share their fantasies which they know to be ridiculous, the fantasies predict extravagant rewards from the ownership of a desired item” (Goldman, 2000. p251) As discussed earlier compulsive shoppers are more prone to fantasy then matched controls. (O´Guinn and Faber 1989)

Certain therapists, such as Kreuger, see money as an “Action Symptom”. This refers to the use of some substance (food, alcohol etc) to attempt restitution of a missed or derailed developmental need. It is suggested that meney may be used to temporarily regulate feelings and tensión states creating an illusion of meeting a fundamental need. The treatment that is suggested when shoppingt addiction is seen from this angle is that the entire psychodynamic scenario must be understood and addressed for affective theraputic change. It is suggested that theraputic interventions must strive to undrestand “developmental arrest” and “defensive functions” as compulsive shoppers are “guided by the responses of others and by external points of reference” (Kreuger 2000 p82) so they have little or no self-identity, it is the therapists job to be empathetic and convey comfort and most focus on the use of the symptoms: the motivation, enactment, and experience of the symptomatic act itself and its change throughout the course of therapy. (Kreuger 2000)

Another treatment that could help compulsive shoppers is Debtors Anonymous. This follows a twelve-step program. There is a proloferation of such programs for the treatment of disorders involving alcohol, eating and gambling. To participate in such a program and publically declare oneself an addict incurs far less ridicule today than in the past. Of course, some people may not understand why they need to go because spending, shopping and debt are not necessarily synonymous. (However, it is logical to asume that for the most part individuals with compulsive shopping problems will incur significant debt and financial distress.) The Debtors Anon. Is based on that of Alcoholics Anonymous. It is a behavioural model and at it´s coreis “the concept that debting is an addictive disease and that solvency is the solution” (Levine and Kellen 2000, p23) . Solvency in this case means to not incur any new unsecured debt and can be seen as the equivalent of sobriety for and alcoholic. There is a distinct religious or spiritual element to it. Problems are refered to as being ‘spiritual bankruptcy’. They use tools such as meetings record keeping and spending plans in the recovery process. (Levine and Kellen 2000) Dittmar et. al. Discussed a meted of theraputic intervention, given that they see compulsive shopping as a means of compensating for self discrepancies (as discussed before). They suggest that self help organisations seem to concentrate on councelling services and debt managment but neglect the issues of self-image. They also suggest that treatment with anti-depressantssuch as Fluoxetine or behavioural therapies can curb the spending sprees but that these behaviors often return after treatment. Their research suggests that the issues of self discrepancies and materialism need to be addressed “theraputically either by aiding clients in changing aspects of their self concept or finding diferent, more positive avenues for self-completion” (Dittmar et al 1996, p12)

From a more clinical perspective however, the use of anti depressants is advocated as with eating disorders and OCD. Neurochemical imbalances (involving serotonin) have been suggested as a posible factor in the development of compulsive consumption disorders (Black and Gable as cited by Faber et al.1995) In support of this a study by McElroy, Satlin and Pope (1999) showed how compulsive shopping can be treated with Fluoxetine. For a treatment to be affective in the long term however it seems that self image and materialism and drug therapy would be an effective combination.

To conclude, this essay has shown hoiw the act of shopping is not simply for the functional aspects of the goods. According to the social psychological model other factors such as symbolic meaning allow the individual to express and construct a sense of self and identity. The evidence reviewed here has demonstrated how individuals suffering from shopping addiction are more likely to suffer from low-self esteem, be more prone to fantasy and be more materialistic than matched controls.(O´Guinn and Faber 1989)

The majority of the evidence talks ogf an emtiness of the self that is soothed and “filled up” by consumer goods.(Cushman 1990) This is supported by the fact that compulsive shoppers will mostly purchase image orientated goods such as jewellery and clothes. The essay has also explored to clinical perspective and the way in which there is a strong likelihood of co-morbidity of psychiatric disorders. A relationship between eating disorders, gambling and shopping in particular has been explored and a striking similarity to the addiction framework of drug users has been noted.(O´Guinn and Faber 1989) The second part of the essay has delt with some of the various treatments available for individuals with shopping addiction. Namely: psychoanalytic psychotherapy, behavioural techniques and twelve sep programs such as Debtors anon. have been discussed. In addition to this, therapies involving helping individuals with self-discrepancy issues have been looked at. The more clinical aspect of treatment with anti-depressant drugs has also been discused.