The main benefit of managing a classroom through the Behaviourist approach is the focus on subject knowledge and skills. The whole class teaching facilitates subject matter being taught in a logical manner. However, this is essentially a basic and outdated method, with the learning experience restricted to knowledge & experience of teacher and few opportunities for social interaction, something that was considered vital by Vgotsky.
“For Vogotsky, co-operatively achieved success lies at the foundation of
learning and development” G. Chambers (2004)
Furthermore, the whole class approach makes no allowance for differentiation and the different learning styles that are recognised within education today.
Molnar and Lindquist’s (see appendix 1) working in the late eighties supported the notion that a rigid Behaviourist approach does not create the most effective environment for learning. Their research recognises the need for challenging work, but with differentiation to ensure the tasks set do not threaten.
Skinner’s ideas are important when considering the relevance of Behaviourism in the 20th century. Working in the 1960’s, he recognised the dated approach of Thorndike and adapted what were essentially the same ideas to make them more relevant in the classroom. He criticised the use of punishment, and instead placed the emphasis on positive reinforcement or reward, believing like Pavlov that an action that proved fruitful was more likely to be repeated. Skinner made a considered move towards the Constructivist ideas.
Social Constructivism
Although not a Social Constructivist, it was Piaget that established the basic principles behind the Constructivist school of thought. These ideas were later adopted by Vgotsky, whose interest in the development of human cultures led him to examine the way in which humans learn.
Essentially the constructivist belief is that if you provide children with appropriate experiences and they will learn. This principle idea was developed by Piaget through extensive research and still has influence in the primary classroom today.
Vgotsky supported this idea that concepts can’t be taught and that children learn more effectively through valid and meaningful experience. However, he claimed that children needed to be introduced to learning. This led to the development social aspect of constructivism - through interaction with more knowledgeable others, children could learn. He deemed this to be a fundamental feature of human intelligence.
Implementation of this approach in the classroom has become more common place over recent years. The Social Constructivists stated that teaching by an adult didn’t lead to the understanding which is crucial to learning; they strongly advocated an approach whereby an adult introduces a child to a concept or experience, providing invaluable instruction. In other words the teacher facilitates the learning by introducing an activity or experience within the classroom. This support is termed ‘scaffolding’, and can be adjusted according to the individual child.
“There is a large gap between what they can learn from a given situation on their own, and what they can learn from the same situation with the support of someone more knowledgeable.” Vgotsky
When implementing the Social Constructivists ideas with the classroom there are a number of points that require careful consideration. David Bell of OfSTED stated that ‘some children are better prepared for this social way of learning’ and said that it depended ‘on their background and pre-school learning experiences at home’.
The teacher is required to be creative in the classroom organisation and in developing learning activities that provide for the relevant learning experiences, and additional teacher support is often required to introduce and assist to transform the activity from a constructivist one to a Social Constructivist ideal.
Although this approach to learning creates effective learning activities that are challenging, yet achievable according to the abilities of the child, effectual classroom management also encompasses creating an effective learning environment, Rogers 1990.
Poor behaviour within the classroom would result in disruption and render the environment unsuitable for learning. Managing children’s behaviour in the context of group work can be hard. However, the introductions of multi-level reward schemes that run throughout schools appear to be effective. Given the greater social context that Social Constructivism brings to classroom, through group work for example, children are encouraged to work together and learn from each other. This in turn has brought about the ‘self-policed’ classroom, where there is an emphasis on working together with rewards for whole class, group and individual behaviour.
Furthermore the classroom becomes a positive environment where discussion and positive contributions are seen as important. The emphasis is placed on involving and engaging everyone which results in less negative behaviour or disruption.
Children are aware of learning objectives & progress is frequently reviewed. This empowers the children and encourages them to become active & independent learners who are responsible for their own behaviour.
Jerome Bruner is also a Social Constructivist. His work has had great influence upon the education system within Britain. Bruner introduced the idea of continuity and progression in his book, ‘The Process of Education’.
Combining Bruner’s 4 key themes from the process of education (see appendix 2 ), with Piaget’s theories of cognitive development (see appendix 3), it is possible to identify that children become more aware, and therefore more able to manage their behaviour as they get older, making a Social Constructivist classroom environment more feasible. Dreikurs also looked at the social context of learning. He believed that everyone needed to find a sense of belonging and significance.
This social context of the Constructivist approach allows for differentiation and empowerment. Combining this with the use of both positive and negative reinforcement, and not punishment, aims to ensure that the child is actively engaged in an appropriate learning activity that will result in reward for staying on task, as well as for learning. The existence of sanctions, or negative rein-forcers, should serve as a deterrent to poor behaviour.
“In short, positive reinforcement (being rewarded) and negative reinforcement (getting rid of something unpleasant) influence the immediately preceding behaviour in the same way; they both strengthen it.” http://mentalhelp.net
The Social Constructivist approach has been adopted by many schools throughout the UK, with behaviour policies based upon the sanction and reward system.
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has also been introduced into schools over recent years, in an effort to support the existing approach. By targeting children through these different intelligences, which now includes emotional intelligence, the intention is that the child will be able to access the curriculum through their preferred learning style, absorbing them into the task more fully. This in turn reduces the likelihood of poor behaviour and increases the learning experience, combined with raising whole class behaviour, individual and whole class progress and improving the amount of positive social interaction within the class environment. This is a well-rounded approach to effective classroom management.
Implications of research & intended strategies
From research it is clear that no one strategy or approach is successful in isolation. Neither is an approach that is effective in one school necessarily going to be valuable in another. This variation required for effectual classroom management is noticeable from class to class, as well as across year groups and key stages. It is dependent not only upon the personalities of the children, but also the character of the teacher. In addition Socio-economic backgrounds of the children affect the ethos of the classroom.
An example of this, taken from my observations within my placement school, is how the Year 6 class had collectively agreed on a set of rules by which they would all abide. This level of autonomy allowed them to concur on a class privilege which would be awarded at the end of the half term if they achieved their target of 100 ‘stars’. In contrast, the Year 2 class also had class rules; however theirs were introduced & explained by the class teacher as the children were less autonomous and more egocentric, requiring guidelines and boundaries for behaviour to be set for them. Within these constraints, a more immediate reward was used to keep them focused on a positive path.
With these observations in mind, I have arrived at a series of strategies which I intend to use to supplement the Social Constructivists approach, and implement in a flexible and fluid way throughout my forthcoming career.
Initial implementation
‘Effectiveness starts early’ – Emmer, Evertson & Anderson, 1980
Following this model developed by Emmer, Evertson & Anderson, I intend to establish a routines and boundaries within my classroom from the outset. The degree of involvement of the pupils in this process will depend on the class concerned. By providing clear workable systems of rules, expectations, sanctions and rewards I hope to create a positive working environment.
Resolving conflict This is an example of a way of involving children in resolving conflicts they face. Although this would not be translated literally in a classroom, I intend to use a strategy that encourages children to examine their own behaviour, and take responsibility for their own actions. This will be more effective as children get older and as their ability to reason develops, however, it will still be a useful tool with the younger children to teach them to become less egocentric and more aware of others.
Correcting Behaviour – Negative reinforcement
I intend to use negative rein forcers rather than punishments. Negative reinforcement is an effect way of reducing the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring as ‘any action that causes displeasure is reinforced by the relief you experience by avoiding it.’
Furthermore, negative reinforcement is effectual in ‘shaping, modifying and manipulating our behaviour, just as powerfully as M&M’s.’ An example of this in action within the classroom was seen when a child knew that he would not have a break time if he didn’t complete the work set. Subsequently he chose to work harder to finish the work on time and avoid an unpleasant experience.
Rewarding good behaviour and progress
Rewards are used throughout history to train both animals and humans into certain desired behaviours. However, to enable my class to function based on a pre-dominantly Social Constructivist ideal, my management of class behaviour will need to be very consistent and effective in order to allow learning to take place. Therefore, a complex structure of rewards will be used.
Individual: On an individual level I intend to reward progress. This will be linked to children actively learning and becoming independent. For example, if the child has achieved a personal target such as staying on task, rewards will be given. I propose that these will take the form of stickers and a small treat to ensure immediate recognition.
Group: With the class organised into working groups, I plan to initiate a ‘league’. This system is aimed at creating a culture of support, challenge and success, with a weekly incentive awarded to those who work best as a team. Charts will be used to allow the children to monitor progress.
Whole class: Using a system of ‘stars’, as seen in Year 6, the collective behaviour of the class can earn, or indeed lose, stars. If the full 10 are achieved across the week, the children will benefit from a surprise privilege. Unlike with Year 6, it is my opinion that the younger children require a more instantaneous acknowledgement of the achievement.
All of these strategies will be linked across the half-term, as an incentive to continue standards that have been achieved.
Considerations
Dependent on:
- Behaviour policies used in school
- Age of children
- Support of parents
- Resources available for introduction of classroom assistants to improve social learning
Conclusions
- David Fontana ‘Psychology for teachers’, summarises all of what we have covered above. (See appendices 4.)
- Children have to learn to behave
- Different strategies suit different situations
- Generally the approach used these days is based on rewards and sanctions
- My opinion is that this should be developed further moving towards a culture where children are responsible for their own behaviour (long term solution)
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Education & Professional Studies
