Naturalistic observation is an opportunity for researchers to see how children behave, by observing them in a natural setting, and record the behaviour of interest; in their homes, playground, or classroom setting, generally an environment that is a part of their everyday lives. This method attempts to achieve the ultimate goal of developmental psychology of describing and explaining changes in behaviour that naturally occur. A study by Ginsburg, Pappas, and Seo, (2001), for example used naturalistic observation to assess the degree to which pre-school-age children used mathematical concepts in their spontaneous free-play activities. The study was conducted in four day-care centres that enrolled children from different ethnic and social backgrounds. Eighty children were videotaped for fifteen minutes during free-play time. The results showed that children spent almost half of the observation period in some form of mathematical activity. This shows that naturalistic observation can be adapted to provide valid findings in developmental psychology; several methodological issues are ideal for naturalistic observation. However, researchers must code the stream of activities they observe, and need to use clear operational definitions of the behaviours of interest, which is a difficult process, operational definitions may offer bias interpretation. An advantage of naturalistic observation is that it can see the events and behaviour that precede a target behaviour, and note antecedents and consequences of behaviours. Another disadvantage is that researchers must be aware that children might react to the presence of an observer by behaving in untypical or “unnatural” ways, which diminishes the validity of results. Furthermore, researchers must minimise the effects of observer bias, the tendency of researchers to interpret ongoing events as being consistent with their research hypothesis.
Interviews and questionnaires provide a method of directly provoking a response by asking specific questions of research interest. Many researchers use the technique of structured interviews, where each participant has the same sequence of questions; For example, Levitt, Guacci-Franco, (1993) explored the sources of social support for seven, ten, and fourteen year-old children from different ethnic backgrounds. Children were interviewed individually about the people most important in their lives. The results showed that regardless of ethnic background, family was an important source of social support. Researchers who use interviews and questionnaires to collect data from children must be aware that sometimes young respondents may try to represent themselves in the most perceivable favourable form, or answer questions according to they perceptions of the researchers expectations. However, these methods are a quick way to assess children’s knowledge or reports of their behaviour, although children may not always respond truthfully, honesty must be emphasised. Additionally theoretical orientation may bias questions and interpretation of answers.
Case studies and single case studies have made notable contributions to the developmental process, based on an in depth examination of a single child or a few children. It informs an in-depth description of psychological characteristics and behaviours of an individual, often in form of a narrative. Freud and Piaget relied heavily on such case studies of individuals to formulate their broad theories of personality and cognitive development. The details of a child’s background, cognitive skills, or behaviours can provide important insights about the process of development or even a critical analysis of theory. For example researchers Fletcher – Flinn and Thompson, (2000), reported a case of a three and a half year old child who was able to read at the level of an eight –and a half year old. Extensive tests and observations indicated that this child had little awareness of the correspondence between letters and their sounds. Such a finding suggests that successful reading may not depend on phonic skills. Although case studies can provide a rich source of finding in a given aspect of development, it can be vulnerable to observer bias, and the ability to generalise to the larger population may be limited. Single case studies are useful when evaluating a clinical treatment for problem behaviour or an educational programme designed to increase or decrease specific activities in the child.
Longitudinal studies assess the same individuals over a span of years, sometimes ranging from infancy through adolescence. This strategy for assessing developmental change allows researchers to identify the stability of most human characteristics. One of the most well known longitudinal study is by Terman, 1925; Terman & Oden, 1959, studying intellectually gifted children, which began in 1921. Terman studied 952 children from aged two to fourteen years who had scored 140 or above on above on a standardised test of intelligence. One finding was that many individuals in this sample had highly successful careers in science, academics, business, and other professions. High intelligence is associated with greater physical and mental health, and adaptive social functioning in later life. Longitudinal studies provide a rich source of qualitative findings, as well as examining the stability of characteristics. However is costly and requires a significant investment of time, resources and effort. Participants followed over a period of years may move or become unavailable, this makes it difficult for researchers to keep track and maintain a record. One of the biggest critical analysis of this methodology is the possibility of ‘age-history confound, implying that occurrence of historical factors with changes in age; affects the ability to interpret results. Therefore, findings may not be valid, and may not reflect the current period, as a child’s development is likely to be influenced by many confounding factors of the time.
The incorporation of cross-cultural studies of development compares behaviour or patterns of ability in different cultural contexts. Ainsworth’s ‘Strange situation’ study is a powerful example of cultural differences in attachment patterns and behaviour. A cross-cultural study allows researchers to appreciate that developmental adaptations are not universal but are prone to cultural variations. Thus in order to capture the elements of development researchers must be aware of concepts that are relevant and specific to cultures. Henceforth researchers adapt a ethnography approach, a method by which the researcher attempts to understand the unique values and social processes of a culture or a distinct social group by living with its members and taking field notes for an extended period, (Jessor, 1996; Shweder, 1996).
Research into human behaviour creates ethical issues. When children take part in research, the ethical concerns are increasingly complex. Children are more vulnerable to physical and psychological harm, additionally childhood innocence and immaturity, make it difficult for children to evaluate the purpose, and meaning of their participation in research. Thus, the American Psychological Association has developed special ethical guidelines on research on children. Children have the right to be protected from physical and psychological harm. Consent of parents on the behalf of the child should be obtained. Children have the right to concealment of their identity on all information collected in the course of research. Children have the right to be informed of the results of research in language that is appropriate to their level of understand. The BPS guidelines, which all researchers must be familiar with, apply to all adults in participation of research.
Critical analysis of the common methodology widely used within developmental research, provides profound findings in developmental psychology. The wide scope of interest in human behaviour and patterns of change requires the necessity of research through such methodological techniques. Every method focuses on a particular aspect of developmental psychology, and is selected accordingly by researchers. Much emphasise is placed on the use of methodology in developmental psychology, and its critical essentiality.
References
An introduction to child development, 2nd ed G.C.Davenport. (1994)
Child Development, 6th ed, Laura E. Berk (2003)
Child Development, A Thematic Approach, 5th ed, Bukatko and Daehler. (2004)
