chemistry of renewable resources
Introduction
Everything we need - our resources have come from our planet, whether it is food, water, metals or fuels. It is known that if we use up any one of the earths resources then we will be without it forever. In this report I will look at some general principles of how non-renewable and renewable resources are used and the effect this can have on our environment. The resources that are most important to us are coal, metals, oil, gas, petrol and limestone. Without these we will be helpless. Also, these can only be replaced by nature after many million years. We call these non-renewable resources. Many industries rely on these as source of raw materials and will face problems unless new sources or new manufacturing techniques are found. We cannot find any techniques because most of the earths materials are so mixed up, that we can't sort them out and make them useful. On the other hand renewable resources renew themselves more quickly such as plants grown for food, and fuel. But these can be used up too fast if we do not use them carefully. These resources are in continuous supply, for instance wind and solar energy. Scientists are working very hard on developing new ways to use these renewable resources. But first industry needs to make more products that use the safe environmentally energy like solar powered vehicles. In the future they could also include the use of ocean thermal, wave, and tidal action technologies. Utility renewable resource applications include bulk electricity generation, on-site electricity generation, distributed electricity generation, non-grid-connected generation, and demand-reduction (energy efficiency) technologies.
Fossil fuels, coal, oil and natural gas, are a non-renewable source of energy. Formed from plants and animals that lived up to 300 million years ago, fossil fuels are found in deposits beneath the earth. The fuels are burned to release the chemical energy that is stored within this resource. Energy is essential to modern society, as we know it. Over 85% of our energy demands are met by the combustion of fossil fuels.
This graph shows us that fuel is decreasing as the world's population is increasing
These two pie charts show exactly how vital fossil fuels are to our society by showing how much of each energy resource is consumed
Coal provides around 28% of our energy, and oil provides 40%. Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, an acidic gas that contributes to the formation of acid rain. This can be largely avoided using "flue gas desulphurisation" to clean up the gases before they are released into the atmosphere. This method uses limestone, and produces gypsum for the building industry as a by-product. However, it uses a lot of limestone. Crude oil (called "petroleum") is easier to get out of the ground than coal, as it can flow along pipes. This also makes it cheaper to transport.
Natural gas provides around 20% of the world's consumption of energy, and as well as being burnt in power stations, is used by many people to heat their homes.
It is easy to transport along pipes, and gas power stations produce comparatively little pollution.
Other fossil fuels are being investigated, such as bituminous sands and oil shale.
The difficulty is that they need expensive processing before we can use them.
The steam that has passed through the power station's turbines has to be cooled, to condense it back into water before it can be pumped round again. This is what happens in the huge "cooling towers" seen at power stations.
Some power stations are built on the coast, so they can use seawater to cool the steam instead. However, this warms the sea and can affect the environment, although the fish seem to like
80 percent of the petroleum sales consist of oil, condensate and NGLs. This percentage will decrease as new gas fields are developed. The share of gas production is expected to rise to 50 percent within 15 years. With the current production rate of gas, we have gas resources for 75 years. 55 percent of the total remaining discovered gas resources have not yet been sold. In addition to this, our expectation to undiscovered gas volumes equals 3,5 times the volume that we have sold during the first 30 years.
Production has been started from fields with more than half of the estimated producable oil and gas - and half of this has been produced already. A little more than 25 percent of the resources remain to be discovered. Several discoveries have not yet been approved for production. Our goal is to achieve an average recovery of 50 percent of the discovered oil and 75 percent of the discovered gas
Advantages
* Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal, fairly cheaply.
* Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy.
* Gas-fired power stations are very efficient.
* A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost anywhere, so long as you can get large quantities of fuel to it. Didcot power station, in Oxfordshire, has it's own rail link to supply the coal.
Disadvantages
* Basically, the main drawback of fossil fuels is pollution.
Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which contributes to the "greenhouse effect", warming the Earth.
* Burning coal produces more carbon dioxide than burning oil or gas.
It also produces sulphur dioxide, a gas that contributes to acid rain. We can reduce this before releasing the waste gases into the atmosphere.
* Mining coal can be difficult and dangerous. Strip mining destroys large areas of the landscape.
* Coal-fired power stations need huge amounts of fuel, which means train-loads of coal almost constantly. In order to cope with changing demands for power, the station needs reserves.
This means covering a large area of countryside next to the power station with piles of coal.
Is it renewable?
Fossil fuels are not a renewable energy resource.
Once we've burned them all, there isn't any more, and our consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years since 1900.
This is a particular problem for Oil, because we also use it to make plastics and many other products
Biofuels
A fuel can be defined as any chemical that reacts with oxygen to release energy, in particular, heat. Most of the fuels that are in use today are fossil fuels - coal, gas and oil and their products, e.g. kerosene or paraffin. They were produced by plants, which photosynthesized millions of years ago, mostly in the so-called Carboniferous period. These chemicals are also important raw materials for chemicals such as dyestuffs and detergents. They are finite - one day they will run out, and will never be renewed, or at least if they are, will not be ready for us to use for another million years! Another alternative is ethanol. By using ethanol we become fewer dependants on the usage of foreign oils as it can be produced at home. This again can be used for running cars
All fossil fuels are compounds of carbon. In a world containing an atmosphere of around 20% oxygen, there is a very strong tendency for carbon compounds to oxidise. Plants (and some bacteria) have a UNIQUE ability to produce reduced carbon compounds.
The flash point. The longer the carbon chain, the higher the boiling point. To ignite, the molecules of fuel need to in gaseous form - methane is, but in there case of paraffin, there will be just molecules of gaseous paraffin above the liquid, as it evaporates, unless heat is applied. Paraffin therefore has a higher flash point and is more difficult to ignite.
All fuels need an initial input of energy before they will burn - usually in the form of a match. This is to break the C-H bonds. A longer chain molecule needs a higher input of energy as it has more bonds to break.
Molecules with longer carbon chains also need more oxygen to burn completely to form carbon dioxide and water - see the equations below.
Bio fuels have a number of advantages when compared with conventional fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal or natural gas
Advantages
* These use energy that otherwise might be wasted, or convert hazardous gases into energy that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere and create extra pollution - for example, methane from rubbish tips. Some of these technologies, like gas from landfills, already provide cheap power but others, like gas from household waste digesters, are only just reaching the market.
* All biofuels are safe to handle and store due to their high ...
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Bio fuels have a number of advantages when compared with conventional fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal or natural gas
Advantages
* These use energy that otherwise might be wasted, or convert hazardous gases into energy that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere and create extra pollution - for example, methane from rubbish tips. Some of these technologies, like gas from landfills, already provide cheap power but others, like gas from household waste digesters, are only just reaching the market.
* All biofuels are safe to handle and store due to their high ignition point
* The advantages of biofuels include their contribution in conserving fossil resources, and the reduction of greenhouse effect since biofuels are more favourable in energy balance and greenhouse gas balance as compared to fossil fuels.
* Wasters are also used, which don't cost a lot.
* Biofuels are also a renewable and sustainable source as the fuels are from organisms that can be grown again. These organisms are mainly plants and wood. This is known as bio-energy
Disadvantages
The argument should be analysed against the background of the world's (or an individual country's or region's) real food situation of food supply and demand (ever-increasing food surpluses in most industrialised and a number of developing countries), the use of food as animal feed, the under-utilized agricultural production potential, the increased potential for agricultural productivity, and the advantages and disadvantages of producing biofuels.
2 there are costs. Concerns about environmental impacts, reliance on foreign supplies, and depletion of domestic reserves have led to calls for increased research and development of alternative sources of energy
3 There are environmental problems associated with extracting, transporting, and using fossil fuels. In particular, in the process of burning fossil fuels, carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is emitted, which raises concerns about the potential of human-induced global warming
4 Large areas would be needed devoted to growth of plants for fuels- the whole of Europe covered with oil seed rape would not produce RME to meet our needs.
5 Usually, not all of the plant (biomass) is converted to fuel. There is considerable waste, but we can use these products as animal food, for instance alcohol and "waste" yeast.
6 Biofuels can be slow burning, and the energy can be low per unit mass. Nevertheless in the biofuels appendix, the fuels diesel and ethanol took very slow to burn even though they had a low temperature
7 They also can be difficult to ignite and burn incompletely. Fuels can also be modified e.g. Rapeseed oil, to burn more easily. During the biofuels appendix there was a blackening of the boiling tube during burning. This is suggesting a fuel is burning in oxygen
Future Feasibility of Biofuels
Energy is key for food, housing, production and transportation. There is nothing more important for a developing country than a good energy plan that can be economically feasible and sustainable with growth of the activities in the country. The plan must be aimed to supply affordable energy for all aspects of society, if not, the country has no chance to escape the poverty trap. The energy supply must be resistant to disturbances of different kind. The best model will have a diversified supply of energy sources and energy production. Central energy production and distribution will be sensitive to social disturbances, price fixing and monopoly rule. The developing countries present energy markets that are very small in the relation to developed countries and this is one of the reasons why they are not developed countries. This also means that a massive production and large facilities for biofuels are not feasible or needed. It also open up and support the possibilities of a decentralized and diversified biofuel production. Common for the above Biofuels are simple processes and feasibility as fossil replacement. It is old and proven "Ready for use" technologies. The only challenge is to start to implement it to the large scale that is needed. Now is the time to do it. The feasibility is already proven and to wait will bring the developing country in an unfavourable future. Brazil is already seeing the positive results and the necessity to continue on the path.
Foodstuffs
Food is fuel for the body - it is oxidised by virtually every cell in your body to release stored energy.
Carbohydrates
Most of your energy comes from glucose, broken down by a series of chemical reactions in the cytoplasm and mitochondria (see Unit 2) of your body's cells. It is broken down in carefully controlled stages - biologist and author Malcolm B.V. Roberts has suggested that a slice of cake contains as much energy as a stick of dynamite! - And the energy released used to produce a temporary energy store, or "currency" called adenosine triphosphate or ATP. Glucose and other carbohydrates are the best foods for our bodies because they are pleasant to eat and found in many of the foods we eat
Fats and lipids
Fats are richer source of energy than carbohydrates (1 g of fat contains twice as much energy as 1 g of carbohydrate) because fat molecules are less oxidised. They are a less important source of energy, though, as we're less likely to eat large amounts of foods high in fat content - with the possible exception of nuts
Proteins
Proteins are required for growth and repair (as are fats) and are not usually used as a source of energy, except in times of starvation. The cause of death in people suffering from "slimmers' disease" - anorexia nervosa - is heart failure, because the body begins to obtain energy from the protein in heart muscle
Typical values Per 100g (3.5 OZ)
Energy
92 k/cals
Protein
2.7g
Carbohydrate
21.3g
Fat
0.9g
Dietary Fibre
2.5g
Advantages of Foodstuff
* Renewable and sustainable as they are obtained from plants which contain starch, sugars and oil.
* Foods contain high energy levels which can be released into the body
* Renewable and sustainable as they are obtained from plants which contain starch, sugars and oils. I tested starch and sugar in my appendix.
* Foods contain high energy levels, which can be released to the body. These can be shown in food labels.
* Food label for a tin of corn:
Disadvantage of foodstuff
* Large areas of land will need to be devoted for growing crops as the worlds population is expanding
* Food crops are susceptible to pests and diseases and weather conditions
* Bulk makes transporting the foodstuff difficult to one place to the other especially if it grown abroad
* Large land areas need to be devoted for growing food crops as the world's population is expanding
* Food crops are susceptible to pests and diseases.
* Food crops are susceptible to weather conditions for growth and harvesting. However some of the problems can be solved using biotechnology
Future Feasibility of foodstuffs
Urban agriculture in this report encompasses the production of all manner of foodstuffs - including fruit and vegetable growing, livestock rearing and beekeeping - and at all levels, from commercial horticulture to community projects to small scale hobby gardening. Urban forestry for fuel and timber is also a form of urban agriculture but this report focuses on edible products and, in particular, on those that have been produced sustainable. It is acknowledged that sustainable agriculture is notoriously difficult to define and this report does not attempt to solve that problem. Instead a range of production methods have been included that appear to "tread lightly on the earth".
However if some foodstuffs were used as fuel or heat then there would be a dramatic decrease in the amount of food everyone, especially now that the world's population is increasing with cities expanding into rural areas the idea seems bleak due to amount of room needed to accommodate everyone, however left over could be used as biogas and produce heat. However alcohol looks like a sustainable source of fuel
Portable electricity sources
Around three-quarters of the power used by the western world currently comes from the burning of fossil fuels. These fuels have formed over millions of years, and with today's technology and at the current rate of consumption, one day they will run out. Estimates range from 40 to 70 years for gas and oil, and 230 to 600 years for coal. In addition, some of the world's major fossil fuel producers are politically unstable, making supplies vulnerable.
Solar energy
There are 2 main ways that we use the Sun's energy:
Solar Cells
In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a 100W light bulb from just one square metre of solar panel.
2. Solar water heating, where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. This means you don't need to use so much gas or electricity to heat your water at home.
Advantages
* Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.
* In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get electricity to a remote place.
* Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery chargers
Disadvantages
* Doesn't work at night.
* Very expensive to build solar power stations.
Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of electricity they'll produce in their lifetime.
* Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate. In the United Kingdom, solar power isn't much use except for low-power applications, as you need a very large area of solar panels to get a decent amount of power.
Wind energy
Introduction
We've used the wind as an energy source for a long time. The Babylonians and Chinese were using wind power to pump water for irrigating crops 4,000 years ago, and sailing boats were around long before that.
Wind power was used in the Middle Ages, in Europe, to grind corn, which is where the term "windmill" comes from
Advantages
* Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.
* Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
* The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.
* Wind farms can be tourist attractions.
* A good method of supplying energy to remote
Disadvantages
* The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind.
* Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive.
* Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is unsightly.
* Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds. Splat!
* Can affect television reception if you live nearby.
* Noisy. A wind generator makes a constant, low, "swooshing" noise day and night, which can drive you nuts. An entire wind farm makes quite a racket!
Then again, the small modern wind generators used on boats and caravans make hardly any noise.
Detergents
Detergents and soaps are used for cleaning because pure water can't remove oily, organic soiling. Soap cleans by acting as an emulsifier. Basically, soap allows oil and water to mix so that oily grime can be removed during rinsing. Detergents were developed in response to the shortage of the animal and vegetable fats used to make soap during World War I and World War II. Detergents are primarily surfactants, which could be produced easily from petrochemicals.
Soaps and detergents are made from long molecules that contain a head and tail. These molecules are called surfactants; the diagram below represents a surfactant molecule.
The head of the molecule is attracted to water (hydrophilic) and the tail is attracted to grease and dirt (hydrophobic). When the detergent molecules meet grease on clothes, the tails are drawn into the grease but the heads still sit in the water.
The attractive forces between the head groups and the water are so strong that the grease is lifted away from the surface. The blob of grease is now completely surrounded by detergent molecules and is broken into smaller pieces, which are washed away by the water. You can find out more about how detergents work in our Super molecules activity. The detergent molecules also help to make the washing process more effective by reducing the surface tension of the water. Surface tension is the force, which helps a blob of water on a surface hold its shape and not spread out. The surfactant molecules of the detergent break apart these forces and make water behave, well, wetter!
The advantages of detergents are
* Detergents are renewable and are made from plants and animal oils
* Cleanabillity of detergents is equal to soapless detergents
* Soaps are produced more quickly and more cheaply then synthetic soap
The advantages of using detergents are they quickly clear the main source of damage to wild life i.e. the presence and high toxicity of the thick oil on the surface of the water and beaches. Detergents can also be used in cleaning oil from animals who have come into contact with the oil.
The disadvantages of detergents are:
* Scum is produced by soaps in hard water
* Detergents are made from crude oil which is not renewable
* Large areas of crop growth will be needed to produce oils for soaps
* Soap based detergents are harsh-alkaline, while PH is slightly acidic, leading to harm skin and hair.
The disadvantages are that unlike soap, detergents are neither soluble nor biodegradable. Once put into water, they tend to remain there, resisting breakdown. Some detergents are considered to be 'environmentally friendly' as they do not contain phosphates or bleaches.
Feasibility of detergents
Surfactants (surface-active agents) are large volume chemicals: their annual production exceeds 5 million tons worldwide. They are primarily used as cleaning agents in laundry and dishwashing applications. Surfactants are also applied in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, in textile and fibre manufacturing, in paints and plastics, in the paper industry, pesticides, and oil recovery. On the other hand surfactants are used, as additives in the food industry, like Bakery products and desserts. The most widely used surfactants are produced from petrochemical raw Materials.
In the long term, fossil feedstocks will be exhausted and products based on renewable materials will become more important. Growing consumer demands for "natural products" will also direct the search for new surfactants towards renewable sources. An additional benefit of applying carbohydrates is the creation of a new market for abundant agricultural products
Some concern has been expressed about the residue of the detergent leading to damage to creatures that inhabit the sea bed, but as the sea has a diluting effect, this damage has not been excessive.
In summary, detergent is not an ideal solution, but is useful in oil disasters. However, we must not lose sight of the fact that it is the oil itself which is the greatest threat.
Colour chemistry
Colour is important in a variety of way Humans have used colour from prehistoric times - from decorating their bodies to painting the caves in which they lived. These colours all came from natural sources, but for the past 150 years, we have made use of man-made colours. But the raw materials to make these synthetic colours will one day run out, so research is now being carried out into the use of natural colours once more.
Advantages of colour chemistry
* Dyes can be made from a wide variety of natural sources
* Water based dyes may be easy to rid of
* Natural dyes produce a wide variety of colours
Disadvantages of colour chemistry
* Many dyes produce different colours in acidic or alkaline conditions so condition needed to be carefully controlled and much quality control needed
* They may wash out easily so a mordant is used; this is usually a metal salt that may be toxic.
* Wide variety of colours produced by far fewer then synthetic dyes.
* The colours aren't as vibrant as synthetic dyes
Biofuels
Introduction
A fuel can be defined as any chemical that reacts with oxygen to release energy, in particular, heat. Most of the fuels that are in use today are fossil fuels - coal, gas and oil and their products, e.g. kerosene or paraffin. They were produced by plants, which photosynthesised millions of years ago, mostly in the so-called Carboniferous period
In this experiment I will calculate and compare the heat of combustion. I will compare the difference in Diesel, Ethanol and Paraffin
Equipment
* Temperature probe
* Water can
* Clamp
* Measuring cylinder
* Heat proof mat
* Bunsen burner
* Stop watch
* Paraffin, diesel, ethanol
* Goggles
Safety points
Safety is really important, especially if you are working with chemicals and body fluids. Here are examples of safety in this activity:
Individuals should wear safety goggles for eye protection, because chemicals can cause a lot of damage to the eyes
2 Never leave bags and coats hanging around, someone can trip over them and cause a accident.
3 If body fluids spill on clothes or skin then immediately wash them off. If you wait then they could stain your clothes or skin.
4 Never leave a chemical in a beaker over a Bunsen burner, because if the chemicals in the beaker are boiling hot then the beaker could break.
Method
* Take a 250-cm3 beaker and weigh it.
* Measure out 100 cm3 of water.
* Pour the water into the beaker
* Weigh the beaker of water. This will give you the exact mass of water.
* Take a small spirit burner (without the wick) and weigh it.
* Measure out 10 cm3 of ethanol.
* Place the ethanol in the spirit burner.
* Reweigh to give the exact mass of ethanol.
* Place the wick in the burner
* Clamp the beaker above the burner.
* Record the temperature of the water in the beaker.
* Light the wick.
* Note the type of flame produced and the length of time that the fuel burns.
* When the ethanol is completely burned, stir the water in the beaker and record its final temperature.
* Calculate the heat of combustion for ethanol using the following formula: Energy evolved = mass of water x heat capacity of water x temperature rise Where heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g-1.
* To make the test fair, the energy evolved should be calculated per mole of fuel.
Number of moles = mass of fuel
Relative molecular mass of fuel molecule
Heat of combustion = heat evolved J mol-1.
Number of moles
Repeat the experiment using different fuels.
Results
Temperature Mass
Fuel
Start
End
Temp rise
Start
End
Amount used
Observations
Diesel
37
41
4
93.3
92.3
Black smoke
Ethanol
27.3
35.5
8.2
60.2
62.3
2.1
No apparent change
Paraffin
22.5
35.2
2.7
78.2
69.2
9
After 1 minute black smokes begins
Conclusion
From my results I can see that ethanol was no near as high as paraffin and Diesel. Which therefore means that ethanol wouldn't be good substitute however fuels like paraffin could be used. And also tells me that ethnonol was the poorest at releasing energy. There are many reasons why this experiment created anomalous results. Mostly they were because of lack of equality of the equipment and methods used in this investigation. Also Time limit of experiment was exceeded in some cases.
The investigation will be made reliable by repeating the tests three times for each alcohol. Because if for one the alcohols something goes wrong than this can be seen compared to other two results, and labelled an anomaly. Also because the water can was hot, placing the thermometer was a bit of a problem, so the reading taken from the thermometer may been misinterpreted.
Making sure the investigation is reliable and fair is very important because it could even alter the conclusion at the end if it is unfair or unreliable Same Top Pan Balance
Each top pan balance weighs slightly differently, if I used a different balance for each alcohol there may be slightly more or slightly less of the alcohol, this may make my experiment inaccurate. I will control this variable by
In fact, this laboratory method is highly inaccurate as the chemical energy in the fuel is not all converted to heat, but to other forms of energy also. In addition, the heat energy is not all transferred to the water. For accurate determination, a bomb calorimeter is used. The bomb is a steel container, coated on the inside to prevent oxidation. A known mass of the fuel (or food substance) is placed in a platinum cup, and the air in the bomb is replaced with oxygen. The device is closed and lowered into an insulated calorimeter containing a known mass of water. An electrical current is passed through an iron wire in the platinum cup and used to ignite the fuel. The water in the calorimeter is stirred throughout, and the heat of combustion calculated from the temperature rise in the water.
Foodstuff
Food is fuel for the body - it is oxidised by virtually every cell in your body to release stored energy.
The aim of this experiment is to see if foodstuffs would be sustainable resource
Testing for sugar
To find if a liquid contains a simple sugar, you will need to do a benedict's test
First of all I began collecting all the foodstuff and placing them into a test tube
Then add 3-5 drops of benedict's solution. Properly shake the test tube by gently tapping the bottom of the test tube against the heel of my hand then I placed my tube into a hot bath for up to 10 minutes and then observe the change
Testing for starch
The second test I carried out was the starch test. This was a straightforward test. Once again I collected the equipment. I Place the testing samples on the wax paper. Then I placed one drop of iodine on each of the testing samples
Testing for protein
The protein test was the exact method as used before but instead of uses ethanol I used a biuret solution. A solution containing a long chain protein will turn vivid purple when exposed to the biuret test. A solution containing shorter chains of protein will turn pink. A solution having no protein will turn cloudy blue
Fat test the fourth test was to smear the fatty stuffs on filter paper and see if there was any grease paper if they did then there would be a substance called fat in it
Results
Food
Glucose
fat
Protein
Potato
Green
No change
Light purple
Biscuit
Horrible green
white
Light blue
Bread
Yellow
Little white
Blue/purple
Raisins
Brick red
No change
Blue
Peas
green
No change
Blue/purple
Meet
blue
White
Blue/purple
Sultan
orange
No change
Blue
Lard
No change
white
Blue/purple
Evaluation
The method for this experiment was incorrect as it was difficult what my results were telling me and that the results are not 100%, accurate due to the errors which is will discuses later, then I would say that these results are not strong enough to base a firm conclusion on because there are so many sources of error, which are explained later. I believe that the experiment was successful but some of the results were unreliable. Believe that the experiment was designed well but there were a few problems
I could have noted the colour of the food before testing it. This was because I found it hard to tell if the colours had run. I could have improved my results by noting down how much starch was present. These errors both occurred in the first run, when the technique and practical skill had not been perfected over a large number of experiments. The more times an experiment is preformed then the more accuracy and skill the student acquires To ensure that my results were more accurate, I could have carried out the experiments a few more times,
Foods however are not accurate source of energies however other countries have begum use it as a source of fuel. This is merely because energies in food come from sustainable sources. However the world's population is increasing therefore mote crops.
If I were to redo to this practical in the future I would use precise techniques that would provide more accurate result. I would separate all foods and avoid contamination
Portable electricity sources
Around three-quarters of the power used by the western world currently comes from the burning of fossil fuels. These fuels have formed over millions of years, and with today's technology and at the current rate of consumption, one day they will run out. Estimates range from 40 to 70 years for gas and oil, and 230 to 600 years for coal. In addition, some of the world's major fossil fuel producers are politically unstable, making supplies vulnerable.
Batteries are all over the place -- in our cars, our PCs, laptops, portable MP3 players and cell phones. A battery is essentially a can full of chemicals that produce electrons. Chemical reactions that produce electrons are called electrochemical reactions.
Electrons collect on the negative terminal of the battery. If you connect a wire between the negative and positive terminals, the electrons will flow from the negative to the positive terminal as fast as they can
Materials
* Beaker
* Sulphuric acid
* Aluminium
* Zinc
* Lead
* Bulb
* Copper
* Power pack
* Volt meter
* Crocodile clips
Safety
The things that I will need to do to keep my experiment a safe one for myself and other students around me are as follows:
Wear safety goggles as I am using sulphuric acid
* Care to eyes and the skin besides all the other people is always vital and necessary
* Care in using glassware since it is sharp when broken and can cut skin
* Safe disposal of reagents and laboratory chemicals
Practical 1- how big is the voltage produced
Firstly I began by 60ml of sulphuric acid into small beaker. I then placed two of the metals as shown in to beaker I then attached the metals with crocodile clips to the voltmeter and the read of the voltage. I then observed the metals reactions to the acid. These are the list of the sets of metals were put into the sulphuric acid
* Aluminium
* Zinc
* Lead
* Copper
Practical 2- how sustainable is lead metal
Firstly I began by 60ml of sulphuric acid into small beaker. I then placed two of the lead strips into the beaker. Then I attached a power pack to the metal, which was attached to 6V on the power pack. I then left the metals to for the amount of time desired. After 2 minutes I attached the metals to a light bulb with the crocodile clips and observed how long it was lit for. I also read of the voltage by attaching the metals to a volt meter by the crocodile clips
Results
Electrode 1
Electrode 2
Voltage
Aluminium
Lead
0.55 V
Aluminium
Zinc
0.10V
Zinc
Copper
0.80V
Zinc
Copper
0.31V
Aluminium
Copper
0.41V
Lead
Copper
0.40V
Practical 2
Time
Voltage
Time bulb was lit for
2 minutes
.7
5 seconds
4 minutes
.69
0 seconds
6 minutes
.65
2 seconds
8 Minutes
.77
6 seconds
Evaluation
From my results I can tell that zinc and copper had the highest voltage and aluminium and lead had the lowest voltage I will now evaluate my work to date be referring the aim set at the beginning of the assignment and will evaluate and analyse my performance and accomplishment the objectives. Over all this experiment has been an interesting and an enlightening experience, which I have gained many skills and much knowledge even however I did encounter many problem. However I did encounter some problems the bulbs were very old and some were broke this could be easily improved by buying new ones. Also the electrodes kept touching each other to prevent this from happening could place two electrodes onto a splint which would be secure and then the electrodes would be separated.
Overall I am pleased with my results and the way the experiment was carried out. I think my results were fairly accurate to make the overall experiment results more accurate we repeated it three times
Some other areas in the experiment that I feel I could have improved on were factors like using a sustainable source for testing the batteries.
. There is lots of room for human error here. But the inaccuracies due to them were negligible because I paid close attention to these during the experiment
Soaps and detergents
Detergents and soaps are used for cleaning because pure water can't remove oily, organic soiling. Soap cleans by acting as an emulsifier. Basically, soap allows oil and water to mix so that oily grime can be removed during rinsing.
Soaps and detergents are made from long molecules that contain a head and tail. These molecules are called surfactants; the diagram below represents a surfactant molecule.
Materials
* Fairy liquid
* Ariel
* Soap flakes
* Sodium hydroxide
* Sodium chloride
* Cooking oil
* Water
* Spatula
* Test tube
* Beaker
* PH probe
* Test tube rack
* Glass rod
* Bunsen burner
Practical one- making soap
I began by adding 10 cm 3 solution of hydroxide of cooking oil. i then left them into the beaker to boil over the Bunsen burner. I then added a few spatula of sodium Chloride, this was in order to make lighter then I allowed it to cool. I then scarped the soap of the surface off the beaker. I washed the soap gently and allowed it to dry. i then tested the soap with a PH probe.
Practical 2-meaasuring the PH
To test the beaker of the soap flakes. Ariel and fairy liquid i put them into a small beaker and tested them with a PH probe
Practical 3- lathering potential of detergents
I began by adding 5 cm 2 of water to the soap solutions i shook it really hard so it full potential was used. I measured the lathering potential by seeing how high the bubbles went
Results
Practical one and two
Soaps and detergents
PH
Detergents
1.79
Soap flakes
0
Our soap
9.45
Fairy liquid
8.17
Practical 3
Soaps and detergents
Lathering potential
Washing up liquids
8 cm
Soap flakes
9 cm
Evaluation
Our soaps was more alkaline and in industry is would be refined and perfume would be added and colour to take off access solution and make it desirable. Our soap had the most alkaline and fairly liquid the least soap flakes had the highest lathering potential then soap flakes and washing up liquid were the same.
I encountered many problems during this experiment. I used a PH probe rather then universal indicator and litmus paper to get more accurate results. I also didn't repeat my experiments, which I should have go give improved results.
Colour chemistry
Humans have used colour from prehistoric times - from decorating their bodies to painting the caves in which they lived. These colours all came from natural sources, but for the past 150 years, we have made use of man-made colours. But the raw materials to make these synthetic colours will one day run out, so research is now being carried out into the use of natural colours once more.
Materials
* Polyester
* Cotton
* Wool
* Acid red
* Cochineal PH4
* Cochineal PH5
Method
I began by cutting my materials up in equal parts. I then out them in 20ml of the solution either acid red, or the cochineals. I then left them in the solutions for 5 minutes and recorded the results when they dried out.
See attached sheet for results
Conclusion
From all my results I can see that the acid red are the best dye. However it is a non-renewable source. Man-made dyes are the best. I that the experiment was straightforward to carry out and easy to do. However I think that I didn't cut my pieces into equal parts. Hence making the test unfair.
