In theory, genetic engineering seems like progression in the right direction, however, there are many disadvantages. A large area of concern is the ethics of genetic engineering. People may disagree with it because it is unnatural. A chicken has been created with four legs and no wings. We should ask what the point of this is. It seems like the scientists are just ‘playing God’. People may also say that it is unethical to clone, as life should be a precious gift from God. This also applies to research carried out on fetuses. This may be deemed wrong because the research scientists have no respect for the foetus, but you could argue that this was lost when they were aborted. Another problem with genetic engineering is that there could be unforeseen consequences. There is no way of knowing the long-term effects, and whether it is safe. There could be problems in future generations. Genes in transgenic plants could ‘escape’ into other species, for example a herbicide resistant crop could cross-pollinate with weeds making them herbicide resistant. There may also be from studentcentral.co.uk economic problems. With genetically modified crops, it may result in developed countries no longer needing crops from developing crops, meaning loss in trade. Also, only the people who can afford it can pay for gene therapy, so is this fair on those who can’t? With cloning, there are many ethical problems, but also psychological problems, for example a clone of someone who has died may be difficult for the family to deal with. The clone is still a human being, and it may be difficult for them also, especially if they have to live up to the expectations of their original. There have been bans made against cloning. In USA President Clinton banned using Government funds for cloning. The EU also imposed a ban. John Paul II said “the human being has the right to an individual genome”. After looking at these disadvantages, people may say that it is better off to use natural methods such as selective breeding and human donors for transplants. However, they are very time consuming processes.
I have looked at whether genetic engineering will scientifically and practically benefit us, and also the many problems that it causes, but when deciding our own views on the subject, we should look at what religion and moral philosophers would say. The Polkinghorn Committee, set up by the UK Government, found that Christians and Jews have no major objections with genetic engineering, but Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs would not eat the meat of a transgenic organism. All religious groups could say that genetic engineering is unnatural, and the scientists are ‘playing God’. The Natural Law theory by Thomas Aquinas would say that genetic engineering is wrong, as this theory judges actions on whether they are natural or not, and it is an absolute theory so there are no exceptions. A theory that would say that it is right in some cases is Situation Ethics, which would say that it is only morally good when it is done with only selfless intentions, such as to save another person’s life, and not to make a profit. Mill’s Utilitarianism would disagree with putting genetic engineering into practice, because you can not predict all of the consequences, which may bring pain, but he would say that the study of genetic engineering is acceptable, as he believed that we should concern ourselves with the higher pleasures such as science.
‘The advantages of genetic engineering outweigh the disadvantages’. Personally, I disagree with this statement. From the evidence I have gained, I can see that the problems form a strong argument against it. However, I do think that it is acceptable to a certain extent, such as cloning an organ, but not cloning an entire person. But where do we draw the line between what is acceptable and what is not? If this is set by law, it is probable that this will be a slippery slope, and the line will slowly be relaxed. I also agree with Mill, that the study of genetics is acceptable, because scientists should improve their knowledge of the human body. However, I think that as knowledge improves on the subject, use of genetic engineering will be inevitable, which will be difficult to adjust to, but the long-term effects will be for the best.
Hi Nick and Gretchen,
You have asked a very interesting question about, "What is genetic engineering?" Genetic Engineering is in fact, pretty darn great. Basically, genetic engineering means that the DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) material of any source (living or dead cell) can be isolated, identified, altered, and introduced into DNA in a living cell. Most of the work involves isolation and identification of genes - the components within DNA (chromosomes) which contain ALL of the information for the synthesis of everything in every living cell. The information in a gene is a code - which is a three letter-at-a-time sequence of deoxyribonucleotides (A - adenine; T -thymidine; C - cytosine, or G - guanine). The information in this code (the "sentence" may be thousands of "letters" long) is relayed by a messenger. This intermediate messenger is called messenger RNA (mRNA). There is an enzyme which "reads" the DNA and makes RNA from it. This mRNA then travels to the special machinery inside the cell, called a ribosome, and there the message is translated (like translating a foreign language). The translation of mRNA leads to the synthesis of a protein - this protein may be one of the thousands of enzymes necessary for cell life, or, it may be one of the thousands of proteins involved in transport of nutrients, or the structural parts of the cell.
Now, every gene in the chromosome has regions which "say" to the enzyme responsible for "reading" the DNA, and converting the code to mRNA, to Start Here to make the message (mRNA) and End Here (stop making the message). And also, there are regions within the gene which end-up as a code in mRNA which "say" to the ribosome, Start Here making the protein, and End Here making the protein. Every organism has a little different gene structure for the message-making enzyme of that species - so - the enzyme in human cells that makes mRNA from human gene DNA, cannot "recognize" the gene in a bacterium, and therefore cannot relay a message - and vice versa. Further, the mRNA regions which "converse" with the ribosome can only do so if the mRNA and the ribosome are from the same organism (even viruses are sort of like this... a virus which works in human cells, usually will not work in bacterial cells).
Now, genetic researchers have investigated gene structure for many, many years - and have identified these important regions - know exactly the sequence of animal, plant, and bacterial genes, and the regions which allow the gene to be expressed (mRNA made from it). Genetic engeneering allows one to actually change the sequence of the DNA at these important regions to allow a human gene for example, to be expressed by bacterial enzymes and ribosomes. So, if one can get this gene into the chromosome of a bacterium, even though the gene encodes information for a human protein, if one alters certain of the gene regions to make these regions compatible for bacterial enzyme interaction, then this human gene will be expressed in a bacterium, and a human protein can be made in this way.
The bacterium usually used for introduction of foreign genes, is a very special laboratory strain of Escherchia coli (E. coli). This strain is a real wimp (requires special nutrients), and cannot survive outside of the laboratory (purposefully changed for safety reasons). Because of this ability, genes for certain human substances have been introduced into E. coli. This process of gene introduction into a cell is called gene "cloning." Since bacteria divide every 20 minutes or so, the gene will be cloned within the entire population (same gene in every single bacterial cell - millions of copies therefore of this gene within the entire population) - therefore, one can get many millions of bacterial cells, each of which are making this human protein. This protein can then be produced in great quantity, isolated, purified, and given to people who need it. Here are two examples: human insulin, and human erythropoietin.
Both human insulin and human erythropoietin are very hard to isolate from humans - very, very tiny quantities are made at any one time - are each powerful hormones). We'll look at insulin first.
Many diabetics cannot make insulin and therefore need an external source of this substance (not so for all diabetics - there are different kinds of diabetes). In the past, since human isulin could not be isolated very readily, diabetics injected either pig or cow insulin (the structure of insulin among pigs, cows, and humans is almost identical). But by cloning the gene for human insulin into E. coli, plenty of human insulin (the "right stuff") is available now to save people's lives. As for erythropoietin, this hormone is required for human red blood cells (erythrocytes) to mature to a functional red blood cell (without these erythrocytes we would not be able to use the oxygen we breathe). Some people cannot make this hormone. However, by cloning the gene for erythropoietin into E. coli, this hormone is readily available, and is now saving many lives.
Further, there are people trying to clone the gene from bacteria which is responsible for production of an enzyme which converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3), into plants. All nitrogen in our bodies comes from ammonia - but - the ONLY organisms which make ammonia from atmospheric Nitrogen, are certain bacteria that live in a symbiotic relationship with plants called legumes (pea plants - a redbud tree is really a great-big pea plant). If it weren't for these particular bacteria, and their symbiotic relationship with legumes, no life as we know it would exist on earth. So, people would like to clone this gene into many kinds of plants other than legumes.. that way, ammonia wouldn't need to be added to soil in order for plants like corn and wheat to grow - the corn and wheat could make all of the ammonia they needed - on their own. Thus, many starving people in the world would have more food.
Further, human genes are being introduced into other humans who have a dysfunctional gene for a substance necessary for life. And, genes which make anti-cancer substances are also being cloned, and in some cases being introduced into the chromosomes of a person, in order to help that person fight cancer.
So, genetic engineering is wonderful and powerful. But, like all wonderful and powerful things, there is a potential for mis-use. Therefore, it is every person's responsibility to become as informed as they possibly can in order to see that such things are used for the good of this planet... we are the caretakers of all that is here.. it is our responsibility to guard this precious earth and all of the living things on it.
