Genetically modified foods have been proven safe but the hysteria surrounding them has been unfounded and highly questionable.

Genetically Modified Foods

Walk through the aisles of any grocery store. Sit down to eat in just about any restaurant, school cafeteria, workplace lunchroom, hospital, or airplane. Open your cupboards and refrigerator. Look at what’s cooking in your oven, microwave, or frying pan, or what’s on your fork, your spoon, in your cup or drinking glass… You can’t see, smell, taste or feel the difference. And you can’t read about it on food labels or restaurant menus. But you and your family are now part of a vast culinary and biological experiment—dining on an expanding menu of genetically modified foods. Foods that are unlike any foods consumed in human history.(Cummins & Lilliston, 2000, p. ii). Genetically modified foods have been proven safe but the hysteria surrounding them has been unfounded and highly questionable.

Definitions

To understand anything surrounding science it is good to define a few definitions. There are many different names surrounding genetically modified foods, but they reflect the many language biases of the countries they originated from. Taken from the book, Genetically Engineered Food: A Self-Defense Guide for Consumers the following definitions are define: a) Genetically engineered (GE) is the standard U.S. term for a process in which foreign genes are spliced into a non-related species, creating an entirely new organism. b) Genetically modified (GM) is the same as GE, but this term is more widely used in Europe because it translates more easily among different languages.

c) Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are the actual organism that is created through genetic engineering. d) Biotech foods, gene-foods, bioengineered foods, gene-altered foods, transgenic foods are foods that have been created through genetic engineering. e) Frankenfoods is another term for the above, and it refers to the story of Frankenstein and science gone bad.

History of Genetically Modified Foods

The first real discovery that later lead to genetically modifying organisms was the cross fertilizing of corn in 1724.

Born in 1823, a man by the name of Gregor Mendel traced the genetic characteristics of living things. When scientists discovered the DNA that was wrapped up inside all living cells, they gained access to the “blueprints” of almost every living thing on Earth.

In 1962, James Watson and Francis Crick solved the mystery of the DNA structure, making the double-helix concept and nucleotide strands become an international piece of knowledge. Thus, they received the Nobel Prize for Medicine.

In 1980, the US Supreme Court made a ruling that genetically altered life forms would require patenting. This allowed an oil company to patent an oil-eating microorganism that sat priority and opened up massive possibilities, including that of the misuse of genetic engineering for commercial purposes (Leou, Lothringer, Mo, Ng, Tang, et al., 2000, para.9).

The issue concerning the genetic modifications used by commercial industries for company gain has been under enormous criticism and is still being hotly debated by people from all walks of life.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

All living things are made up of cells. The center which controls the cells function is called the nucleus. In the nucleus there are thread-like structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is made up of two single strands. They are strung together from sugars, phosphates, and the nitrogen bases adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C).

The Three Steps in Modifying Organisms

The process in which to genetically modify food has three steps. First, one must find the gene they want and decode it. This will determine the gene’s DNA structure. Secondly, you want to inject that gene into single cells of another organism. Finally, you then want to grow those new cells into complete organisms.

Step One – DNA Ligase

Restruction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific sites. DNA Ligase can then be used to join the cut DNA with DNA from another organism(Leou, et al., 2000, para.9). DNA ligase is when plasmids, short loops of DNA that are found in bacteria. The plasmid is cut open with a restriction enzyme and mixed with the target gene, which has been similarly cut. DNA ligase is used to stitch the gene of interest into the plasmid. This "recombinant" plasmid is then mixed with bacteria, which, under appropriate conditions, take it up.

Step Two – Inserting the Gene

The gene then can be inserted in several ways. First, scientists count on the unusual bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, to piggyback or carry, genes from one unrelated plant to another. The bacterium enters only dead, broken plant cells. This bacterium causes certain plants, such as tomatoes, to grow tumors, called galls, by adding a piece of its own DNA to plant chromosomes. This bacterium infects about 10,000 different kinds of plants. By inserting new genes into the bacterium’s DNA, scientists hope to transfer genes from many sources into plants to improve them in a wide variety of ways. (See Figure 1-1). Secondly, we can use a method called electroporation. This process includes exposing a suspension of protoplasts, bathed in a DNA solution, to a brief, intense electrical current (Lee, 1998, p. 219). The shock is usually 1 or 2 kilovolts per centimeter and it lasts around twenty to fifty microseconds. When this occurs the cell momentarily opens up pores in the protoplast membrane and allows DNA to enter. Thirdly, one can use a microprojectile gun. This is when the DNA is shot through the cells using a blast of high pressure helium gas.

Step Three – Growing the Organism

The concluding step in genetically modifying an organism is to grow it into a complete organism. Once the foreign DNA is safely injected into the plant cells they are grown into plants. If they succeed, the seeds will be harvested. Then they will be put on the market for farmers to purchase.

Environmental Issues

There are pros and cons in all work that is done whether it is science or in history. One of three main issues posed by genetically modifying food deals with the environment.

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Step Three – Growing the Organism

Environmental Issues

There are pros and cons in all work that is done whether it is science or in history. One of three main issues posed by genetically modifying food deals with the environment.

Herbicide Resistance

Herbicide resistance is the most commonly engineered characteristic in transgenic crops (Leou, et al., 2000, para.1). Herbicides are chemicals that are mainly used by farmers to kill unnecessary plants or weeds. Some of the down sides about weeds include the fact that they compete with the crops for moisture, nutrients and light. Common sense says that we should control their growth or keep them to a bare minimum. Herbicide resistant crops, as the name implies, are genetically engineered to be immune to the poisonous weed-control chemicals being sprayed onto them (Leou, et al., 2000, para. 2). In some plantations having herbicide resistant crops is a plus. Without herbicide resistance, numerous crops are being killed or damaged through the use of herbicides. If we make herbicide resistant crops then what we don’t want killed stays alive and what we want killed is killed. One of the major concerns regarding herbicide resistance is that the farmers who have non-resistant crops will spray as much herbicide chemicals on their fields, thus having potential to create super weeds, that are immune to the herbicide being used. In addition, the environment is being harmed by the over use of herbicides. Herbicides can have adverse ecological effects on natural habitats near farmlands, endangering other plants, animals and furthermore humans. They pollute waterways and the groundwater, making the people on farms second guess if their water is contaminated.

Insect Resistance

We all know how insects bug us! Insect resistant crops have been genetically modified to enhance their resistance to insect pests, which can destroy many crops in the plantation and are a huge nuisance to farmers (Leou, et al., 2000, para. 1). One of the main benefits of insect resistance, is that farmers will be spraying for insects. The chemicals they spray are harmful to the environment and waterways. Thus, the waterways will benefit. Occasionally, some parts of plants are difficult to reach by spraying, and so they are eventually destroyed by insects. With genetically modified crops, though, since spraying is not required, this will no longer take place. Another problem with insect resistant crops, is that of same with herbicide resistant crops, the fear of the insects becoming immune to the resistance. In a sense if this occurs, we are doing worse than better. In addition, there are growing concerns around the world, that pollen can sometimes travel long distances, that will eventually kill or harm insects that are “friendly” that are located away from the farm. Despite the numerous guarantees made by scientists that generically modified crops will not have effects on “friendly” insects, there is not 100% proof of this.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Reduction

The third environmental issue raised by genetically engineered foods is to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Geneticists in the Philippines have successfully transferred genes from maize into rice (Leou, et al., 2000, para. 1). It was their goal to increase how much rice was being made, but they also managed to produce a strain of rice that sucks large amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by altering some genes responsible for the photosynthesis process. Some of the benefits include, less greenhouse gases, and more rice to feed the world’s growing population. Since this new strain of rice was only developed in April 2000, there are so far no problems that have been detected.

Human Health: Risk or Not a Risk?

Some people believe that the genetically modification of crops means better taste and extra nutrients, however, others argue that there could be many side effects and dangers when consuming the genetically modified crops that could prove to be fatal. This is particularly true if the public is not totally aware of all the components of a specific genetically modified crop (Leou, et al., 2000, para. 1 & 2).

Allergic Reactions

Say you are allergic to nuts. You could have eaten a food that has been modified with a nut. Not known that it was, you could possibly die. Examples like this make people second guess whether genetically modified foods are safe.

Some people think that if some of the genes in genetically modified crops are accidentally transferred and they were to get into our bodies that the effects could be fatal. One cannot exactly be proven wrong until a given amount of time and intensive research is carried out. On the other side, some types of genetically modified foods will help improve human health. Some rice has been genetically modified so it grows twice as fast. Scientists have also added Vitamin A and iron to the rice. This helps third world countries whose main food staple is rice, because these countries do not have access to foods like red meat, eggs, chickens, butter and milk which all contain Vitamin A and iron. Thus, increasing Vitamin A and iron is beneficial.

Developing Countries: Should They Have Access to GMO’s ?

Some other characteristics that are commonly inserted and tested in crops are the ability for them to resist certain viruses, extreme temperatures and also enabling the crop to survive with less energy than normal.

These things are useful to developing countries, for these places usually don’t have much fertile land and there is lack of resources present. The effects of genetically modifying seeds are that we would produce more yields, which in the end would help the large population in those developing countries.

People on the contrary have problems with how these developing countries are supposed to get a hold of these genetically modified seeds to enable them to plant these crops. These countries don’t have very much money to begin with so how would they be able to pay for this technology? In this situation, these developing countries are still not receiving this technology. They are susceptible to and in danger of being exploited by big and powerful bio-tech companies that could and will take over (take advantage) of these countries.

For some, genetically modified crops are a plus in a sense that Africa would benefit the most from these seeds. Africa has older technologies of breeding crops (e.g. the Green Revolution, where the farmers there had to be educated in the use of fertilizers).

Patents: Are They Needed?

Multinational companies hold patents on a wide range of genetically modified organisms, and on the techniques that are used to produce them. Theses patents give them exclusive rights on organisms, genes or processes for up to twenty years. Multinational companies think that patents are essential, to protect their substantial financial investments in research and development. There is also sometimes a lot of conflict due to the similar gene research and finished products made by different bio-tech companies (Leou, et al., 2000, para. 1).

The support for the labeling of genetically modified foods has been tremendous. In Canada, there are five acts under which GMOs are regulated by the CFIA (Canadian Food Inspection Agency): the Feeds Act, Fertilizers Act, Seeds Act, Health of Animals Act, and the Plant Protection Act. The CFIA carries out safety assessments to evaluate new agricultural products for their efficiency and the safety of the worker, bystander, animals and the environment. The CFIA is also responsible in the post approval inspection (e.g. product labeling, facilities, field trials, etc) and the licensing of manufacturing facilities. The safety assessment includes how the food crop was developed (which includes the molecular biological data which characterizes the genetic change, composition of the new food compared to non modified counterpart foods, nutritional information for the new food compared to non modified counterparts, potential for new toxins and the potential for causing allergic reactions). If Health Canada is not satisfied during any stage of the assessment additional research is then carried out. This safety assessment processes was based upon principles developed through international expert consultations carried out by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (“Regulation of GMOs”, 2002, para. 1-9).

Moral and Ethical Issues

Do we have the right to play with the building blocks of life? In these next two paragraphs we ask ourselves the ethical and moral issues of genetically modifying foods. Lets say that one day there will be chocolate flavored spinach. What would we call it? Chocolate or spinach? If God presented you with a brown, sugary substance and called it chocolate, would you be willing to call it spinach (Leou, et al., 2002, para. 3)? I can tell you what I would hear if I asked someone who doesn’t believe in God, they would reply with “huh!,” or we have the technology so why not use it? or we can make the food taste good, last longer, grow faster. If God presented you with some chocolate, and some bread, and told you to make yourself a sandwich, you’d call it a chocolate sandwich. Explain again, why can’t you just call it chocolate spinach (Leou, et al., 2000, para. 4)?

The reason this is such an important ethical and moralistic issue is because many people believe that we were born a certain way, and that’s the way it should be. Same thing with apples, and horses and cotton ! They were “born” that way, and the question that is highly debated, should we be allowed to change it? You choose.

Here are two question for you to consider: Are you religious? If so, are there certain foods that you cannot eat because of your religion? Secondly, are you a vegetarian?

My friend is a vegetarian. She has strict standards by which she follows very closely. From, not eating meat, to having her shampoo not tested on animals, she makes sure everything isn’t used or killed. So, when I told her that fish genes have been proven and successfully transferred into tomatoes, she feels betrayed. She also said that if she found out “meat” genes were being transferred into vegetables and fruits, she would have to even furthermore restrict herself to what she buys and doesn’t buy. In addition, for religious people it is the same. Take Hindu’s for example, they are not meant to eat cow. This would cause a major problem if cow genes were found to be inserted in fruits and vegetables. Overall, this issue is basically formed by the fact that people must know what is in their food. On the other hand, some people would argue that some genes would make the food last longer, which would make them ha\ppy. Again you chose.

Case Study: Genetically Modified Rice

Rice is the world’s second most important cereal crop after wheat, and the staple diet for a two of the six billion people on the earth (Leou, et al., 2000, para.1). In most developing countries, people depend on rice as their main source of income as well as food. Genetically modified rice, has been proven to produce 33% more yields than normal un-modified rice. It is expected that world’s population is to grow by 66% by 2050, to over 10 billion inhabitants. We ask ourselves, where will we produce all this food to feed the increasing population? IR69144 is a newly developed strain of genetically modified rice which benefits include, an increased capacity for greater levels of carbon dioxide (up to 30% more), has high levels of iron, zinc and vitamin A. This would help third world countries by lower the levels of anemia and blindness sufferers that comes with a low amount of iron, zinc or vitamin A in their diet.

Case Study: Genetically Modified Tomatoes

Genetically modified foods have been a major ethical issue that has dominated the world as the prospect of man-made and better fruits and vegetables inserts itself in the heads of the world’s population. In the race to produce fresher, healthier and more nutritious organic food products , the genetically engineered tomato leads the way. It has the honor of being the first official genetically engineered food to be introduced to public consumers (Leou, et al., 2000, para.1). The first, genetically modified tomato to hit marks was produced by a company called, “Calgene, Inc.” They introduced the “Flavr Savr” tomato to the general public of the United States after they had successful testing that were performed both in Britain and also in the States themselves. Organic tomatoes are usually picked off the vines when they are mature but still “green” to avoid over –ripening, softening and damage by the time the reach the market (Leou, et al., para. 2). Although green, unripe tomatoes are gassed with ethylene to ripen and turn them red after reaching the market, it does not allow them to the time to develop the flavor that they would have, had if they had been left on the vine until they were ripe.

Calgene Inc., in 1994, produced a tomato a more flavorful tomato that has a longer shelf life. The result of this tomato, was that it had been genetically modified so that it softens more slowly so that the fruit can remain on the vine till ripe.

Safety Comes First. Or Does It?

Genetically modified foods are regarded as safe after rigorous research by Health Canada. Many types of medication used in Canada are genetically modified. An example is that of insulin used by diabetics which is produced by means of gene technology. Foods modified to be resistant to certain diseases and/or bugs may in turn lessen the need for pesticides and chemicals. Overall, genetically modified technology could be the one solution we have been waiting for to feed the worlds ever so increasing population. On the other hand, Gene technology serves corporate interest with it’s “quick-fix,” characteristics of solving world hunger. The distribution of wealth and power has more to do with world hunger than insufficient food production and food quality.

How Much Do People Really Know About GMOs??

I decided to do my own survey (the questions being taken from http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/survey.html) to see how aware people really are of genetically modified food. Surprisingly, I had similar answers to the website I got the questions from. I had 29 participants. Ten of them being 30+, three of them being 19-25, and sixteen of them being 15-18 years of age. The aim was to investigate the understanding and views on genetically modified foods among various segments of the community with the focus projected on high school students, who are the future users of ,and the ones who will benefit most from, this technology. The extent to which the media has influenced these views and understanding was also investigated (Leou, et al., 2000, para.1). Questions one through three were classified under general knowledge. Questions four and five were classified under environmental issues. Questions six and seven were classified under social-economic issues. Questions eight and nine were classified under ethical and moral issues. Questions ten and eleven were classified under media influence and finally questions twelve and thirteen were classified under personal opinions.

What I saw was that the 15-18 age category knew very little regarding GM food. Example being what it is, the amount of GM produce in grocery stores. This is sort of sad to see because as the younger ones grow older they will be exposed to genetically modified foods more often. On the other hand, the adults had more of an idea of the issues surrounding GM foods.

I found most interesting was that the adults voiced their own opinions, differing thoughts and ideas. Whereas the students did not. I received fascinating comments in the “opinion area.” Some people were supportive towards genetic modification of crop plants, not carrying about side effects while others had an opposing view. It is obvious that further development in this area will cause more controversy, but hopefully a solution will be found that everyone will be satisfied with the outcome.

What’s Left?

The only question left is whether can this technology safely marshal a plant’s natural defenses against weeds or viruses? Can it induce crops to flourish with minimal application of chemical fertilizers? The only answer may emerge as the people learn by trial and error. We’ll have to see what will happen.

Bibliography

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Cummins, R. & Lilliston, B. (2000). Genetically Engineered Food: A Self-Defense Guide for Consumers. Marlowe: New York.

Edlin, Gordon. (1982). Genetic Principles: Human and Social Consequences. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc.

Fincham, John R.S. (1983). Genetics. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc.

Hamilton, W.D. (1996). Narrow Roads of Gene Land. Macmillian Press Limited.

Hyde, M.O. & Hyde, L.E (1984). Cloning and the New Genetics. Enslow Publishers, Inc.

King, R.C. & Stansfield, W.N. (2002). A Dictionary of Genetics. Oxford University Press, Inc.

Leahy, Stephen. (2002, September). Biotech Hope and Hype. Maclean’s. 40-42.

Lee, Thomas F. (1993). Gene Future: The Promise and Perils of the New Biology. Plenum Press.

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Zurich, J.M. (2000, July). Grains of Hope. Time. 14-22.

Internet

http://www.agriculture.purdue.edu/agbiotech/ethics/concerns.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/background.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/history.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/howto.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/herbicideresistance.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/insectresistance.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/reducingco2.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/humanhealth.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/developingcountries.heml

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/patenting.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/labelling.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/playinggod.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/foodrestrictions.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/rice.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/tomato.html

http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/home/mendels/survey.html

http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/biologics-genetics/gen_mod_foods/genmodebk2.html

http://ohioline.osu.edu/gmo/faq.html

http://www.pbs.org/harvest/exist

Genetically modified foods have been proven safe but the hysteria surrounding them has been unfounded and highly questionable.

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