This evidence suggests that women have not always been subservient to men in religion. However, female “goddesses” were worshipped over 4000 years ago and therefore evidence is outdated. Although women may have made significant advances in many areas of their lives, their role in religion is still limited.
Although in many religions people worship and believe in one God, men and women view him differently. Davie (1994) argued that women saw God as loving, comforting and forgiving, whereas men saw God as powerful and controlling.
The female connection with spirituality is shown in the Jewish religion, in which a person can only become Jewish if their mother is. This shows that women do have an important religious role. However, some Jewish men include these words in daily prayer: “Blessed art thou O lord our God that I was not born a slave. Blessed art thou O Lord our God that I was not born a woman.”
Similarly, in Christianity the New Testament states “Wives be subject to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church.” Furthermore, there are many female characters in the bible, yet the most important roles are reserved for males. In the Old Testament, prophets such as Isaiah and Moses are male, in addition to the apostles in the New Testament. There seem to be few dominant female icons, because of the predominance of male power. Additionally, like Christianity, Buddhism is dominated by a patriarchal power structure where women are seen as powerless and profane.
This evidence suggests that men see god as a powerful and controlling male and that women should be seen as subordinate. Religious teachings show that males have the most significant roles, whereas women are mainly associated with the profane and imperfect.
Jean Holm (1994) argues that women are exploited and seen as subordinate in many religions. She argues that, the teachings of many religions have stressed equality between men and women; however, in reality women have usually been far from equal. Holm states that “Women do, of course, have a part to play in many religions, but it is almost always subordinate to the role of men, and it is likely to be in the private rather than the public sphere.”
For example, in Buddhism both men and women can have a role as a monk or a nun. However, a monk is always seen as senior to a nun. Similarly, in Chinese religions, women are seen as Yin and men are seen as Yang. However, Yang spirits are always more powerful and important.
A woman’s low status is usually connected to female sexuality. Holm argues that; “Menstruation and childbirth are almost universally regarded as polluting. In many traditions women are forbidden to touch sacred objects during the menstrual period.” For example, Muslim women are not allowed to touch the Koran, go to a mosque or pray during menstruation. Also, Hindu women are prohibited from approaching family shrines when menstruating or pregnant.
This evidence suggests that a woman’s low status is connected to her gender and sexuality. Menstruation and childbirth are regarded as polluting; therefore a woman’s role within religion will be restricted.
I am now going to look at the role of women within religious organisations.
Until recently, many women were unable to become priests because of patriarchal attitudes. Roman Catholics, Orthodox Jews and Islamic groups continue to exclude women from the religious hierarchy.
However, during the 1970s, Anglican churches in countries such as the USA and Hong Kong allowed women to become ordained. Similarly, in 1992, the Church of England supported the ordination of women.
Simon and Nadell (1995) conducted a study on women in religious organisations by interviewing 32 female Rabbis and 27 female Protestants. Their results showed that women conducted themselves in a totally different way than the male religious members.
Female Rabbis were asked whether they “carried out their duties different to the male Rabbis of the same age and training”. Almost all of the women replied “yes”, describing themselves as less formal, more people orientated, more inclined to touch and hug, and less concerned about power struggles than the male clergy.
This evidence suggests that some religious organisations allow women to have an important religious role. However, Simon and Knells study showed that female Rabbis conducted themselves in a totally different way than male Rabbis. Female Rabbis were more interested than caring for other people, rather than interested in power.
Many Christian feminists argue that there will never be gender equality in the church if God continues to be associated with masculinity.
Simone de Beauvoir (The second sex,1953) has a similar view on religion to that of Marxists. She argued that religion is used by men to control and oppress women and is a way of compensating for their low status. Like Marxists view, religion gives women the false belief that they will be rewarded for their low status in the afterlife.
“Religion gives her the guide, father, lover, divine guardian she longs for nostalgically; it feeds her daydreams; it fills her empty hours. But, above all, it confirms the social order, it justifies her resignation by giving hope of a better future in sexless heaven. This is why women today are still a powerful trump in the hand of the church; it is why the church is notably hostile to all measures likely to help in women’s emancipation. There must be religion for women; and there must be women, “true women” to perpetuate religion.”
Similarly, Nawal El Sadaawi (1980) a Muslim Feminist, does not blame religion for the oppression of women, but blames the patriarchal domination of religion that came with the development of monotheistic religions. She argues that religions “ drew inspiration and guidance from the values of patriarchal and class societies prevalent at the time.”
For example, Islamic society developed in a patriarchal way as men owned herds of camels, horses and sheep. As a consequence “ Authority in Islam belonged to the man as the head of the family, to the supreme ruler, or the khalifa (political ruler), or Imran (religious leader).” Similarly, the Koran claimed that both men and women could be stoned to death for committing adultery, however, it was very unlikely to happen to men. The reason for this was because men were permitted to have several wives (although women could not have several husbands) and therefore had little need to commit adultery.
El Sadaawi argues that early Christianity had stricter moral codes than other religions that treated both sexes equally. However, “ The religious hierarchies that grew and fattened on the teachings of Christ allowed the system of concubinage to creep in once more. Despite the limitations placed by Christianity on man’s sexual freedom, woman was maintained in her inferior underprivileged status as compared with him. The patriarchal system still reigned supreme and grew more ferocious with the gradual shift to a feudal system”.
This evidence suggests that female oppression is not solely due to religion, but due to the patriarchal system that has always been dominant. Sadaawi argues that the only way for women to improve their situation is to struggle for their own liberation.
I am now going to look at the reasons why women are more religious than men.
While it is difficult to know precisely the relationship between gender inequality and religion, it is evident that religious practice and participation does show relatively clear gender differences. Miller and Hoffman (1995) argue that women: are more likely to express a greater interest in religion, attend church more often, and have a stronger religious commitment.
They identify two explanations for these gender differences: differential socialization and differential roles. Differential socialization teaches females to become more submissive, obedient and nurturing than males. Such characteristics are compatible with religiosity, and men who have these traits also tend to be more religious. Secondly, women have lower rates of participation in paid work, and therefore have more time to spend at church. High rates of participation in child-rearing also increases religiosity as it coincides with a concern for family well-being.
Evidence suggests that women tend to participate more in sects than men.
A reason for this is because women are more likely to experience poverty than men, and those who experience economic deprivation are likely to join sects.
Thompson (1996) argues that “They may not have the economic and social standing of others in society, but sect members have the promise of salvation and the knowledge that they are enlightened.”
Glock and Stark (1969) identify different types of deprivation, which are likely to apply to women. They argue that women who have joined sects are likely to have experienced one of these types of deprivation.
Social deprivation arises from a lack of power and status. For example, those in lower class jobs may find satisfaction from joining a conversionist sect such as Jehovah’s witnesses. Organismic deprivation is usually experienced by those whom have physical or mental problems, (more likely to be women than men). People who suffer from this type of deprivation may join a sect in the hope of a better life.
Finally, Ethical deprivation is experienced by those who perceive the world to be in moral decline, and therefore join introversionist sects that separate themselves from the world.
This evidence suggests that women are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation than men, and therefore join sects to try and improve their situation. In the 19th Century, many women initiated sects, such as the Seventh Day Adventists – set up by Ellen White.
Similarly, evidence suggests that women are more likely to join cults.
Cults are mainly involved with promoting personal “improvement” through solutions such as meditation etc. This “private sphere” in cults relates to traditional gender roles for women, which are based in the “private sphere” of the home. Women are more likely than men to see a need for personal improvement.
This evidence suggests that women are more likely to join cults than men as they are more inclined to feel a need to improve their personal lives.
The Rise of Religious fundamentalism over the past few years has played a major role in reversing women’s increasing autonomy and rights. For example, in the USA, violence has broken out over women being able to control their fertility by having the right to an abortion. Similarly, in India, the rise of Hindu fundamentalism has made it difficult for the government to intervene with family life or to encourage greater freedom for women. Likewise, in Afghanistan, Iran and Israel, they insist on conserving women’s traditional positions, making it difficult for women to gain control.
Cohen and Kennedy (2000) argue that “the desire to restore fundamentalist religious values and social practices is associated with the fear that any real increase in women’s freedom of choice and action will undermine the foundations of tradition, religion, morality and, it could be argued, male control.”
This evidence suggests that fundamentalism has restored traditional values in fear of increasing women’s freedom. However, not all women are unwilling to return to traditional roles. Research by Woodhead and Heelas (2000) suggests that women converted to Orthodox Judaism in the U.S, as they were attracted to the status in the home that it provides them with.
Overall, evidence suggests that gender; religious organisations and religious participation are linked together.
Feminists argue that religion has promoted patriarchy, and that women are seen as subordinate to men, however, there is evidence to suggest that this has not always been the case. This is linked to women’s status within religious organisations, as many women have a restricted role within religion, with few religions allowing women to have an important role, for example, a priest. However, despite women having a limited role within religion, evidence suggests that women are more religious than men.
Jessica Pemberton