There are, however, a group of women who very much embraced the feminist culture of ‘having it all’ that was encouraged in the late 20th century. They decided that they could indeed reach the same dizzy heights of career progression as men yet still have children. Unfortunately, part time positions in the higher professions are relatively few, thus for many women this has meant continuing to work on a full time basis in order to maintain their career status and simultaneously bring up a family. Are these women ‘having it all’ or are they simply ‘doing it all’?
In order to answer this question it is necessary to look at the division of labour within the home.
Beliefs about gender roles hugely influences how each partner participates in household duties. More traditional beliefs about male and female gender roles equate to a higher proportion of domestic labour being carried out by women. Ideas on gender roles seem to stem from early childhood and are reiterated in many different arenas thereafter. Referring back to the nature/nurture question, it may well be true that women possess more caring, emotional characteristics best suited for looking after children and men may well be more brave and aggressive than females, yet how these traits translate into competence, or otherwise, of being able to cook and clean is not clear. Media portrayal of gender stereotypes is the more likely culprit in defining gender roles. In the UK, perhaps more than any other country in Europe, television and the press wield a great deal of power and can be instrumental in influencing our lifestyles. In television for example, women are frequently portrayed in a life dominated by the family and personal relationships to a greater extent than men. Men on the other hand, are nearly always shown to be the violent perpetrators of crime. In television advertisements, one is much more likely to see women explaining the virtues of one cleaning product over another whereas men are much more likely to explain their preference for a particular motor oil or car. Perhaps even more alarming is the frequency in which music videos feature scantily clad female dancers and singers performing to their male, fully clothed, counterparts. This harmful depiction of women is generally aimed at teenage audiences – very worrying when you consider that this is perhaps the age when young people are trying to form ideas about the their identity and decide on which direction in life they wish to take.
The division of domestic labour is so much ingrained that in school age children, girls do five times more housework than boys (Mintel 2004). It appears that sexist stereotypes are passed on from generation to generation. What is also inherited from previous eras is the notion that the job of a housewife and mother is of a lowly status, indeed women themselves are often heard to be said that they are ‘only’ a housewife. There is a contrast in this view between the US/UK and many European countries; the latter often regarding this role with higher esteem whereas the US and UK take the position that it is inadequate to simply stay at home to look after a family. Fortunately for American females, there is a much better provision of childcare and holiday camps and this has shown dividends; of the Fortune 500 companies, 15.7% of directors are women (Catalyst, 2008) whereas in the UK FTSE 250 there only 3.97% female directors (The Guardian, Feb 2011).
In 2000, the Office for National Statistics reported in their ‘Time Use’ Survey that “Reductions in women’s housework load are marginally reduced by paid employment”. It confirmed that women do three quarters of all housework with a higher proportion being carried out by women once children enter the household. Thus the evidence would appear to back up many women’s complaints that after many generations of fighting for the right to have the freedom and choice to go out to work, it has simply resulted in a ‘double shift’.
Once this so-called double shift starts to ease and children become less dependant many women may view this as an opportunity to begin or expand on an identity independent of the family role. This all sounds very good in theory, but in practice it is not always feasible. There are various reasons for this - both practical and psychological. Women who have largely devoted themselves to rearing children find they have little confidence when trying to re-establish themselves as worthy employees. This may well be due to the aforementioned view that the status of a housewife is often seen in negative terms. Middle-aged women are often seen as the ‘sandwich’ generation insomuch as they care for dependant children in their earlier years and then aging parents in their later years. This has become increasingly common over the last few decades as the age at which women choose to start families has crept upwards – thus grandparents are often too old to take on babysitting duties when the children are young but then become frail and need caring for themselves - often at a time that coincides with children deciding to leave home. Typically, it is the middle-aged woman who takes on the brunt of this responsibility. In terms of caregiving, the government has devoted little means to easing the burden, not just of elderly people but also to people who may be suffering long term physical and mental illness. Government help is often given in terms of benefits, e.g. disability or carers allowance whereas often it is practical help that is more urgently needed. There are many worthy charities that are able to offer practical help and support such as Help the Aged, Macmillan Nurses and the Alzheimer’s Society but their resources are limited. A single mother with breast cancer may find herself unable to care for her young children and although she may receive help from the government in terms of benefits, perhaps her more pressing needs are on a practical, daily basis. Social services and Macmillan Nurses may be able to offer limited assistance but it is only with the help of her friends and family (often female) that she is able to live at home whilst still trying to bring up her family. Of course, not all caregivers are female; men will also have infirm parents and frail or senile wives but the statistics show that more females than males take on the role.
In spite of the continuing expectations that women should do the bulk of the emotional and practical caring, many are still determined to step onto the career ladder once more. Take for example the Access course which is specifically designed to help both males and females re-enter the workplace after a period without study or formal work. Primarily these students tend to be females wanting to start careers in the health, social or educational field. When asked why women have decided to pursue careers in this direction, the answers have much to do with the level of flexibility these jobs offer despite the low level of pay they can expect to achieve after four years of study.
The medical, social and educational professions tend to offer many family friendly working patterns and so with the constraints that women face they are ideal on many levels. As such, these areas are now dominated with female workers – some 88% of all nurses and carers are female whereas in the IT industry, a similar statistic is true of male workers. Viewing these two particular occupations in terms of salary shows a huge disparity in the level of earnings: IT professionals can hope to earn around £45,000 per annum, compared to the average nurse’s salary of £26,000. The overall health and social care sector pay gap is even more alarming: male employees earn 30% more than female employees. This differential can largely be put down to the higher occupational level that men achieve; men holding the bulk of the roles in management and as doctors and consultants whilst women are the administrators and nursing staff. The largest differential is in the most senior role as consultants. Whilst the numbers of male and females attending medical school is fairly even, the Department of Health points out that only 25% of consultants are females. This disparity of career progression in the health sector can be largely explained by the reasons outlined previously but there are other factors, specific to medicine, which contributes towards male/female roles.
There is much to be gained by looking at gender inequality in medicine in an historical context. The medical profession was originally composed of many groups which later emerged as professional bodies - most of which are still in existence today. The UK health service is a self governing body regulated by the General Medical Council whose purpose is to “protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public by ensuring proper standards in the practice of medicine”. It was established in 1858 with its foundations routed in centuries of dominance by the Royal College of Physicians. One of its first actions was to set up a national register of recognised practitioners and for setting standards of education. Membership of the profession was strictly controlled, so much so that during the years of 1861 – 1881 its membership only increased by five percent. It was then and continues to be a largely autonomous profession. In having such powers over who is able to rise through the ranks of this revered profession, are the men ‘at the top’ keener on promoting other men rather than women to join them in their lofty status? This was very much in evidence in previous centuries when class had a greater factor in deciding one’s career choice. Many of the members of the RCP had previously attended one of a small number of elite schools. This contributed greatly to the notion that medicine was a powerful and respectful profession to enter. With this weight of history behind it plus the demand for the healing powers of medicine, consultants and doctors are still able to enjoy a privileged position in the occupational hierarchy.
It appears that the reasons of male and female differences in the workplace are many and varied and include historical, social, cultural and biological factors. These combine to create a huge and influential backdrop to the UK’s modern workforce. Many of these influences have created an unequal footing for women to attain a level status. These disadvantages have been highlighted and successive governments have made steps in the right direction in addressing these issues. Yet the government can only legislate so far, it is up to employers, schools, the media and individuals to enforce equal rights. Things have improved over time and will continue to do so, albeit at a slow pace. However nature will remain constant. Women will continue to bear children and will desire to look after them. This is something that must be at the forefront of any rules, regulations and employment strategies.
