Talcott Parsons saw that women have an instinct to nurture as a result of their biologically-based role in reproduction, which makes them ideally suited for an ‘expressive’ role in the nuclear family. This is because mothers bore and nursed children. Male biology suits men to the ‘instrumental’ role in the family, involving the provision of economic support and links with the world outside the family. Socialization by family in which the adults play these two roles are needed for a human baby to develop into a stable adult capable of taking its place in society. He believed that sexual division of labour in the family is seen as essential to ensure ‘normal’ development. Mothers and fathers both have their own distinctive role due to their biological factors and in a family they socialize their children but only up to a certain extent as children nowadays do not solely rely on their parents.
From a psychologist’s point of view, Anne Fausto in ‘Sexing the body’ argued that operations done on babies who are born with ambiguous genitals to classify them male or female can by psychologically and physically traumatic. People end up with a body that does not match the sex that they are programmed to psychologically. Her view was that transgendered people need to have their right to equality and to be different as well as recognized. In some cases, gender is based on the individual’s mind and cannot be reversed.
The Psychoanalytic Theory explained that gender identity is fixed before children are aware of genital differences. Person (1974) found that blind children develop stable gender identities and share social definitions of feminity and masculinity. Children continue to learn gender roles throughout life rather than ceasing to develop with the resolution of their childhood fantasy.
Sociologist, Ann Oakley drew an outline on how socialization of society molds the behaviour of girls and boys from a young age. The four ways she discusses are: manipulation such as a girl is dressed in skirts, canalization where toys are used such as a girl is given dolls while boys are given guns, verbal appellations such as using the terms ‘that’s good girl’ and different activities such as boys are encouraged to climb trees while girls are not. She examined a number of societies in which biology appears to have little or no influence on women’s roles. The Mbuti Pygmies, a hunting and gathering society who live in the Congo rainforests, have no specific rules for the division of labour by sex. Both men and women hunt and share responsibility for children. Among the Australian Aborgines of Tasmania, women were responsible for sean hunting, fishing and catching opossums. In the modern society, women form an important part of the armed forces of many countries, particularly China, the former USSR, Cuba and Israel. In India, women work on building sites, and in some Asian and Latin American countries, they work in mines Gender identity is not based on biological factors, but is instead a choice which is affected by socialization.
Margaret Mead did a classic study of three tribes in New Guinea, she found extensive differences in sex-roles and gender behaviour. The Apapesh community of both men and women were compassionate and caring which showed characteristics of females. The male and female tribe of Munduguors were harsh, violent and aggresive showing male characteristics. Among the Tchambuli tribe, there was a virtual exchange of roles as the men did ‘women’s work’ and painted and decorated themselves while women went out hunting and fighting. Even during pregnancy, women do the heavy physical work. As for the triobander Islanders, women are the ones who are sexually aggressive and who took the sexual initiative. Gender identity varies throughout different cultures because it is socially constructed.
Kessler and McKenna, also sociologists interviewed transsexuals. People normally have gender and genitals equated to each other, but in this case it is not. Through their interview, they studied the content and manner of the speech. Some male-to-female transsexuals have trained themselves to present themselves as women by putting more inflection in their voice and having more mobile facial expressions. They also introduce themselves as ‘Miss’ to settle doubts in the observer’s mind. Their public physical appearance is also altered. Female-to-male transsexuals may disguise their breasts by wearing baggy clothes. Transsexuals need to be careful in order to avoid their past life. They even use a cover story such as this one female-to-male transsexual explained his pierced ears by saying he had once belonged to a tough street gang. There is also the private body of the transsexual where they need to be cautious and avoid certain situation if they have not undergone the appropriate operations. Gender is certainly not shaped through biology. Although some people are attributed with a certain gender along with hormones, chromosomes and genitals, they don’t necessarily coincide. Kessler and McKenna argued that even the most basic division, between male and female can be seen as being a part of social construct.
According to functionalism, human behavior is the product of shared norms and values known as collective conscience. Gender is thaught and leaned through the views of society. Males are expected to be heroic while females are expected to be polite and gentle. This is done through social sanctions which are punishment and rewards. Boys who climb trees would be praised for being adventurous but girls who do the same would be labeled as naughty. Through marketing schemes, children are genderly constructed. For example, happy meal provided in Mc Donalds has two sets, one proposed for boys such as action figures while the other set is aimed for girls such as Barbie doll merchandises. Dress codes, language, behavior, language, games, work, career, activities differ with both men and women and also throughout societies and cultures.
Although sex is ascribed which is biologically determined. Gender is socially constructed in the sense that differences in the behavior of males and females are learned rather than being the inevitable result of biology. Gender is largely socially constructed as the sex of children merely provides a guide on which ways a child should be socialized. Expected since birth, a girl is expected to behave politely.
