Eye Witness Testimony
a. Explain what is meant by the term repression (3 marks) b. Explain what is meant by the term flash bulb memory (3 marks) 2a. Outline one explanation of forgetting in STM (3 marks) b. Outline one explanation of forgetting in LTM (3 marks) 3. Outline and evaluate research into eye witness testimony (18 marks) 1a. Repression is forgetting because the memory holds too much emotion to remain conscious. Freud (1901) believed that some forgetting is an unconscious, motivated process. We forget certain memories because they are too psychologically painful to remain conscious. Therefore we repress them (push out) the memory and they remain inaccessible in our unconscious. For example, abuse experienced as a child might be repressed in memory. b. Flashbulb memories are a special kind of episodic memory, which we can vividly recall in great detail (e.g. September the 11th) It is called a flashbulb memory as the memory is recalled in almost photographic detail. They can also be about personal events, such as the birth of a brother. For Flashbulb memories to occur the event must be emotionally significant and are often unexpected. People who have flashbulb memories ten to remember information surrounding the event such as; where they were, what they were doing, who told them the news, what they felt about it, how others felt about it and what happened immediately afterwards. 2a.
Eye Witness Testimony
EYE WITNESS TESTIMONY The language used by the police when interviewing witnesses and barristers during a trial may influence answers given by witnesses, this language may affect initial perception and subsequent recall. Both of these effects are shown in the study by Loftus & Palmer {1974). My experiment into this field showed the leading question with the `verb` contained the information about what the answer should be, thus language can have a distorting effect on EWT, which can lead to inaccurate accounts of the witnessed account. This was most certainly true in the study carried out, most participants gave a higher estimation of speed when the word in the critical question was changed from bumped to crashed, although a small number of participants were unable to estimate any speed at all. However the experiments were carried out by untrained experimenters which could explain possible confounding variables in the way that the experimenters could have unknowingly in their over-zealousness to prove the experimental hypothesis may have led participants by using tone of voice, facial expressions ect to respond accordingly. Studies into ways of improving the reliability of EWT to help prevent convicting innocent people, it is essential that steps are taken to improve the reliability of eyewitness accounts. EWT has considered hypnosis in an attempt to access repressed
Discuss Eye witness testimony
Discuss Eye witness testimony Eye witness testimony is often held as accurate and is used as the basis for many criminal prosecutions and investigations and can often lead to the conviction and consequent imprisonment of a suspected criminal. In reality eyewitness testimony can be altered and therefore become inaccurate in varying degrees. The information of an event is subject to many influences both within and without the witness. Psychologists studying eyewitness testimony refer to two main models, the Associative network model and the Schema theory. The associative network model of memory states that we have nodes between which links called cognitive associations can travel. Cognitive associations are links between ideas, for instance "pen" and "writing" could be one association. The more frequently that the link is exercised the stronger it becomes and therefore the easier it will be to retrieve. The model suggests that memories are built up through the networking of links and associations between nodes. Inconsistent information results from wrongly linked nodes. This information will receive more attention therefore its linkages will be strengthened resulting in improved recall of the said information. The second model, the Schema theory, takes a different approach. It states that we use our past experiences to help with the comprehension of the world. Past
Outline and evaluate factors influencing eye witness testimony
Francesca Briggs Outline and Evaluate Factors Influencing Eye Witness Testimony The term ‘eye witness testimony’ refers to an area of research into the accuracy of memory concerning significant events, it is legally considered to be a reliable account of events. However, research into eye witness testimony has found that it can be affected by many psychological factors such as, anxiety and stress, reconstructive memory, selective attention and leading questions. Anxiety and stress can be associated with many factors such as, violence and crime. Clifford and Scott (1978) found that participants who saw a film of a violent event remembered less of the information than a control group who saw a less stressful version. However, Yuile and Cutshall (1986) found that witnesses of a real event had accurate memories of what happened. The police interviewed witnesses and thirteen of them were interviewed five months later. Recall was found to be accurate, even after a long period of time. One weakness of this study was that the witnesses who experienced the highest levels of stress where actually present at the event, instead of watching second hand from a film, and this may have helped with the accuracy of their memory recall. Selective attention is when the witness is able to describe one detail, giving them less time to pay attention to other details. It can also be because
To what extent does psychological research support the accuracy of eye witness testimony?
To what extent does psychological research support the accuracy of eye witness testimony? (18 marks) Eye Witness Testimony is an area of research into a witness' recollection of an event, (crime, act of violence, car crash), and the accuracy of their memory. It can prove accurate and invaluable to police investigations but it is also fallible. This research studies what about the testimony is reliable, why errors are made and how to make them more reliable. * Rattner reviewed 205 cases of "wrongful arrest" and found that in 52 % of cases, incorrect EWT had been to blame. * This could be due to Bartlett's theory of Reconstructive Memory. This is the idea that witnesses take original information (e.g. a folk story, as Bartlett studied in 1932), and use "effort after meaning" with their existing ideas, experience and cultural teachings (schemas). * Loftus said that certain situations improve the validity of EWT, which include proximity to the incident, racial similarities and the sobriety and emotional state of the witness. There are a lot of studies finding errors in EWT - Elizabeth Loftus, in 1979, found that Weapon Focus in a hostile situation detracts the witness from the description of the accused. Participants were exposed to two different situations, one being a minor argument in the adjacent room, a person then left that room covered in grease holding a pen.
Section B Essay: Eye Witness Testimony
Section B Essay: Psychology of Testimony Describe what psychologists have found out about the processes and factors affecting witness testimony One thing psychologists have found out about the processes and factors affecting witness testimony is that leading questions can have large effect on ones recall of an event. In the study by Loftus and Palmer (1974) the participants (university students) were shown a video clip of a traffic accident and then given a questionnaire. The 17th question on the questionnaire was, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed/ collided/ bumped/ hit/ contacted?" Each of the five conditions was characterised by a different verb. The results showed that those in the "smashed" condition had the highest estimates of speed (40mph) and those in the "contacted" condition had the lowest estimates (31.8mph). This shows that questions asked after an event has occurred can alter ones recall of the event. Psychologist have found that ones attitudes can have on ones perception of an event. The effect of ethnicity on perception was investigated by Duncan in 1976. The participants (white American college students) watched two versions of a video where two men had an argument that became angrier until one pushed the other. In one version of the video, the person who pusher the other was black and in the other, he was white. Upon watching on of the
Eye witness testimony is so unreliable that it should never be used in convicting criminals. Discuss.
Psychology Assignment 1 "Eye witness testimony is so unreliable that it should never be used in convicting criminals" Eye witness testimony is a legal term. It refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed. Memory is very important for eye witness testimony. An accurate memory for an event can help lead to the conviction of a guilty person or the release of an innocent person wrongly convicted. Inaccurate memory can lead to the conviction of an innocent person or a failure to convict a guilty person, as the jury almost always believe the accounts of eye witness testimony; this was shown in the Devlin report where it is stated that eye witness testimony should never result in a conviction in an English court in the absence of other corroborating evidence. Research points show that eye witness testimony is highly inaccurate. Loftus and Palmer conducted extensive research over 30 years and found that eye witness testimony is vulnerable to many different types of influence. Research into eye witness testimony demonstrates that memories are quite fragile and subject to distortion by post-event information. Studies also indicate that misinformation can introduce serious errors into eyewitnesses' recall of the event. Bartlett challenged the idea of memory as a passive process, and suggested that memory is an active process rather than a "tape-recording"
To what extent had psychological research shown Eye Witness Testimony to be reliable and accurate?
To what extent had psychological research shown Eye Witness Testimony to be reliable and accurate? There are many cases that both help and hinder the reliability and accuracy of EWT (Eye Witness Testimony). One experiment conducted by Loftus and Palmer showed strong results of unreliability and inaccuracy. They gathered a group of American students and showed them a video of a car accident. They then asked them several questions including "At what speed do you think the cars were going when they (hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted) each other?" Only one verb was used per participant. Loftus found that the estimated speed changed depending on the verb they used. The verb affected part of the participants' memory of the incident. This is strong evidence to show that EWT is highly unreliable as it can be affected by leading questions such as that of Loftus and Palmer's. But this theory can be criticised by the idea of demand characteristics. There is no way of knowing that the participants weren't subconsciously trying to please the experimenters by giving them the answer they think they wanted to hear. This would greatly affect the internal validity of the results. However, to combat this criticism, Loftus offered money for accuracy in the questions, therefore cancelling out the chance of demand characteristics having an effect. She found that the results were no different
Eye Witness Testimony. research into this area has found that eyewitness testimony can be affected by many psychological factors
Eyewitness testimony: Eyewitness testimony is an important area of research in cognitive psychology and human memory. It refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed. For example they may be required to give a description at a trail of a robbery or a road accident someone has seen. Jurys tend to pay close attention to eyewitness testimony and generally find it a reliable source of information. However, research into this area has found that eyewitness testimony can be affected by many psychological factors: - Age of witness: Age of witness can be one of many factors on eyewitness testimony. We have to keep in mind that if our witnesses are older they might have illnesses that can effect their memory. - Anxiety: People who were subjected to the highest levels of anxiety were nearest to the incident so would have been able to see more clearly what happened. Loftus Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate how information supplied after an event, influences a witness's memory for that event. The study actually consists of two laboratory experiments. They are both examples of an independent measures design. The independent variable in both of the experiments is the verb used. The dependent variable in the first experiment is the participant's speed estimate and the dependent variable in the second experiment is whether the participant believed
'It is clear from psychological research into memory and eye-witness testimony that accounts of eye-witnesses are entirely unreliable.' Critically consider some relevant psychological research (studies and/or research)
'It is clear from psychological research into memory and eye-witness testimony that accounts of eye-witnesses are entirely unreliable.' Critically consider some relevant psychological research (studies and/or research) and the extent to which such research supports the view in the quotation. Eyewitness testimony (EWT) refers to the descriptions given in a criminal trial by individuals who were present at the scene of a crime. This includes identification of perpetrators, important details and peripheral details There have been many studies done by different psychologists into memory and forms of forgetting; some of these can be used in the argument for whether or not eyewitness testimony is reliable. The reconstructive nature of memory is related to the schema theory. A schema is a package of memory that is organized and developed throughout our lives. Schemas are stored in long term memory. Most people have similar schemas and this was recognized by Bower, Black and Turner (1979) when they asked several people to recall the schema for the most important things they do when they go out to a restaurant for a meal. They found out that most people put the same main aspects in their schemas. As early as 1895 J.M Cattel reported a study indicating poor recall for frequently observed events. In one study Cattel asked his students about the previous weeks weather. It had snowed,
