A recent Gallup Poll discovered 50% of teenage girls would like to lose weight, with 52% of boys saying their weight was ok (Smith and Smith 1900 P.178), this is backed up by Wardle and Marsland (1990) who found the concern with over weight was common in many teenage girls and that this is what leads them to dieting. Smith and smith (1990) also found that in young adults, weight control was more of an issue to women than men. Another study has shown that a good diet is more common in females and exercise and diet are strongly correlated in females (Blaxter 1990 P.122, 131). Fallon & Rozin (1985) asked people to identify their ideal body and current body shape on a scale. Results showed women are less satisfied with their body shape than males.
All of the above studies suggest females will eat healthier as they’re least satisfied with their body images and weight.
As the sample in this observation is students it’s possible to consider students and their diets. Smith and Smith (1990) described the college dining hall as the ideal place to see over eating / poor eating habits, and that many students (especially females) feel pressured to be slender and eat little.
Having focused on studies related to gender and diet, the aim of this observation is to investigate whether differences occur in diets between sexes. Previous research suggests females will eat healthier, and therefore the experimental hypothesis (HI) is ‘Females will eat healthier than males’. The null hypothesis (HO) is ‘There will be no difference in diets between genders’.
METHOD
DESIGN
A non-participant observation with non-disclosure was used. The independent variable (IV) was the gender of those being observed. The dependent variable (DV) was the healthiness of the food eaten, (determined by points on a marking scheme, 2points for unhealthy foods, 1 point for healthy foods).
PARTICIPANTS
Participants were selected using opportunity sampling. The sample consisted of 40 students (20 male, 20 female).
APPARATUS/ MATERIALS
The main material was an observational food data grid in which observations were recorded (see appendix 4 for the grid). A pen was also needed to complete the grid.
PROCEDURE
A data grid was devised to enable observers to record purchases made from the student canteen. This grid was piloted on 10 females / 10 males, using an opportunity sampling technique on Thursday 28th November between 11.30 - 12.10pm. Two observers were present and recorded the same students purchases to check the same observations were being made to create inter-rater reliability for the final research.
As a result of this pilot study some changes were made to the grid (see appendix 1 for the pilot grid and the changes made). The pilot study suggested females were healthiest, as they gained 29 points (males gained 28 points). (See appendix 2 and 3 for pilot grids of raw data). This supports the experimental hypothesis, (however, in the pilot study there was a flaw in the marking scheme and so the pilot study results aren’t entirely accurate).
The final research used time sampling (see appendix 4 for blank grid used in final research). Observations were made on Tuesday 3rd - Thursday 5th of December between 12.10pm - 3.20pm. One observer noted down the males food/drink purchases and another did the same for females by ticking boxes that best described the purchase. This was done sat at a table behind the till points. This process was repeated until each observer had a sample size of 20 (see appendix 5 and 6 for raw data from the final research).
Observers collated data and points were awarded to each participant’s choice of food, (with 1 point awarded for every healthy choice and 2 points for every unhealthy choice). The lower the score the healthier the participant’s diet.
RESULTS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
(Calculations can be seen in the appendices section (appendices 7-10). Raw data can be found in appendices 5-6).
For every food purchased a score was awarded, with 1 point for every healthy item of food/drink bought and 2 points for every unhealthy item purchased. This meant the lower the score the more healthier the choice of meal. (See appendix 5 and 6 for each participant’s score).
Figure 1 shows measures of central tendency for both genders. (See appendix 7 for calculations).
Figure 1: Measures of central tendency for each gender
The mean and median were higher in male’s scores, suggesting they eat less healthy. The mode was the same for both males and females showing both genders scored 2 points, more than any other score.
The scores were calculated for the healthy food purchased, the unhealthy food purchased and the total scored on the grid for each gender. Figure 2 shows these figures. (See appendix 5 and 6 for these scores and individual scores, see appendix 8 for percentages).
Figure 2: Scores gained on the grid for each gender.
As females scored least on the grid under the unhealthy category of foods this shows they eat healthier than males. The overall score is also lower for females showing again, females eat healthier foods. However, both genders bought more unhealthy food than healthy food, when each gender is looked at separately.
A bar chart of the frequency of scores for each gender was put together. See figure 3 for this.
Figure 3: Frequency of scores for both genders
Females scored between 1-4, whereas males where scoring up to 6, showing that females eat healthier, as they scored lower.
Next, measures of dispersion were calculated. See figure 4. (See appendix 9 for calculations).
Figure 4: Measures of dispersion
Male’s scores were more distributed than females. The standard deviation (S.D.) shows that male’s scores are further spread around the mean score, showing that male scores are more dispersed, and female’s scores are more clustered.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
The observation grid produces interval data so a parametric test was used. The test was an independent samples t-test as the observation was a between subjects design. (See appendix 10 for calculations done for the t-test).
The calculated value of t was 2 (df=38). The critical value for the t-test at p<0.05 is 1.697. The calculated value is greater than the critical value, therefore results are significant. (See appendix 11 for critical values table).
DISCUSSION
The aim was to see if differences were present in males and females diet. Descriptive statistics show predictions are as expected and the experimental hypothesis is accepted and the null, rejected. Results suggest females eat more healthily than males (see appendix 5 and 6 for scores on the grid).
The mean score obtained on the food grid for males was 3.05 and 2.35 for females. The median figure was also lower for females. This shows on average, females scored lower on the grid, suggesting they eat healthier.
The mode was 2 for both genders, although the female’s mode isn’t lower than the males, it isn’t higher either and therefore doesn’t contradict the hypothesis that females will eat healthier.
Scores were calculated for the healthy food, unhealthy food and the total overall scored on the grid. Females scored least points on the grid, showing they eat more healthy foods. Percentages were calculated for healthy and unhealthy foods purchased. Females ate 14% more healthy foods than males. However, it was found that both genders bought more unhealthy food than healthy foods, when each gender is considered separately.
Frequency of scores was calculated and females scored between 1-4, whereas males scored up to 6 points. This shows that overall, females tended to score lower than the males, again suggesting they eat healthier.
Measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation) are higher in the male’s scores. This shows the male’s scores are more dispersed (range) and more widely spread around the mean (S.D.), and that female scores are more clustered, and consistent.
Descriptive statistics back the hypothesis, suggesting females eat healthier than males. An independent samples t-test found the calculated t greater than the critical value; therefore results are significant and can be applied to the general population, thus producing external validity.
Referring back to the introduction, results found in the observation support Blaxter (1990) who found that a good diet is more common in females. As the observation was carried out in a university canteen, results link closely to Smith and Smith (1990) who suggested that many female students feel pressured to be slender and eat very little, this was the case as males gained more points on the grid, suggesting they bought more.
Flaws were present in the observation. The sample was small, making results hard to generalize. Participants were of similar background and age, as they were all students. If the observation were repeated, a bigger, varied sample would help make results more representative.
The sampling method used was opportunity sampling and doesn’t create very reliable or representative results, therefore making results hard to generalize.
The observation was open to confounding variables. For example food purchased by the participant may not have been for them. Also peoples eating habits change daily, weekly etc. (however this was challenged by using time sampling). The fact that it’s winter could have affected results, as people tend to eat hotter meals and eat more salad/healthy foods in summer. Another problem was that the canteen was situated in the building that the sport students study in; therefore many participants may have been studying sport and ate healthier than the normal population. A problem is the cost of the foods; healthier foods tend to be dearer. The national Children’s Home looked at prices of food and found that healthy diets prove more expensive than a less healthy diet (NCH 1991). Participants may have picked a more unhealthy choice of food because it was cheaper, rather than because they wanted an unhealthy meal.
Some ethical issues were present. Non-disclosure was used and participants weren’t informed they were part of an observation and were deceived, therefore not giving consent to take part. However, they never found out they’d participated so came to no harm, also if high disclosure had been used, participants behaviour may have been influenced. If the observation were repeated it would help to inform participants that they’d been watched once they’d purchased the food and then you could ask whether their food purchase could be used in the observation grid. This way, deception isn’t used and also observation wouldn’t be open to demand characteristics as participants wouldn’t know they were being watched at the time (Hawthorn Effect).
The grid used in the pilot observation was flawed, as the marking system wasn’t fair. Unhealthy foods were awarded 1 mark, healthy foods, 2 marks. For example 2 cakes was worth 2 marks, (the same as a salad!). This wasn’t equal and so the marking system was changed for the final research. Another problem with the grid is that foods were split into healthy and unhealthy sections. It is hard to constitute as to which foods are healthy and unhealthy, e.g. it could be done by calories, amount of fat in each item etc. Also the quantity of food bought can affect whether something is healthy, e.g. 6 sausages is less healthy than 1. Therefore the grid doesn’t hold face validity and the observation doesn’t hold construct validity.
If the observation were repeated, triangulation research combined with an observation, questionnaire and an interview would create more results and make results more valid.
The observation was of high ecological validity as research was carried out in a natural setting (the canteen). As participants were unaware they were being watched it is most probably natural of them to pick the foods they did. Therefore their behaviour was valid and no social desirability was present.
Overall, results are significant but many flaws were present in the observation. A future study could consider diet and age to see which generation eats healthiest. This would produce a wider and more valid sample. The observation could be combined with other methods (triangulation) to help improve the reliability and validity of results.
REFERENCES
Abraham, S. and Llewellyn-Jones, D. (1987), Eating Disorders: The facts, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, cited in Banyard, P. (2001, Applying psychology to health, Hodder & Stoughton, London P.89
Banyard, P. (2001), Applying psychology to health, Hodder & Stoughton, London P.85-87, 89, 90
Blaxter, M, (1990), Health & lifestyles, Routledge, London P.131, 122
Fallon, A.E. and Rozin, P. (1985), Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape, Journal of Abnormal psychology, 94, 102-105, cited in Banyard, P. (2001), Applying psychology to health, Hodder & Stoughton, London P.90
Harari, P. & Legge, K. (2001) Psychology and Health, Heinemann Educational Publishers, Oxford P.34
Martin, M.C. & Kennedy, P.F. (1994), The measurement of social comparison to advertising models: a gender gar revealed. In J.A. Costa (ed.), Gender issues and consumer behaviour (pp 104-124), Sage, America, cited in Lee, C. (1998), Women’s health, psychological and social perspectives, Sage publications, London
Mennell, S., Murcott, A. and van Otterloo, A.H. (1992), The sociology of food; eating, diet and culture, Sage, London, cited in Atkins, P. and Bowler, I (2001), Food in society, economy, culture, geography, Arnold, Hodder Headline group, London P.312
National Childrens Home (1991), Poverty and Nutrition Survey, NCH, London, cited in Barker, M., Glickman, M., Powers, C and Woodroofe, C. (1993), Children, Teenagers and Health. The key data, Open University Press, Buckingham, P.170
Pinel, J.P.J., (2000), Biopsychology, 5th edn, Allyn and Bacon, America P.298
Smith, S.F. and Smith, C.M., (1990), Personal health choices, Jones and Bartlett publishers, Boston P.155, 178
Wade, C and Tavris, C., (1990), Psychology, 2nd edn, Harper and Row, New York, cited in Banyard, P. (2001), Applying psychology to health, Hodder & Stoughton, London, P.80
Wardle, J and Marsland, L (1990), ‘Adolescent concerns about weight and eating; a social developmental perspective, Journal of psychosomatic research, 34, 377-91, cited in Barker, M., Glickman, M., Powers, C and Woodroofe, C (1993), Children, Teenagers and Health. The key data, Open University Press, Buckingham P.72
COMPUTER PACKAGES
Microsoft Windows ‘98
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Word
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atkins, P. & Bowler, I (2001), Food in Society, Economy, Culture, Geography, Arnold, Hodder Headline group, London
Banyard, P. (2001), Applying psychology to health, Hodder & Stoughton, London
Barker, M., Glickman, M., Power, C., and Woodroffe, C. (1993), Children, Teenagers and Health. The key data, Open University Press, Buckingham
Blaxter, M, (1990), Health & lifestyles, Routledge, London
Clegg, F. (1990), Simple Statistics. A course book for the social sciences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Harari, P. & Legge, K. (2001) Psychology and Health, Heinemann Educational Publishers, Oxford
Heinman, G.W. (2002), Research methods in psychology, 3rd edn, Houghton Mifflin, Boston
Lee, C (1998), Women’s health, psychological and social perspectives, Sage publications, London
Pinel, J.P.J., (2000), Biopsychology, 5th edn, Allyn and Bacon, America
Smith, S.F. and Smith, C.M., (1990), Personal health choices, Jones and Bartlett publishers, Boston
